
Oass_13!l.<o&)._ 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




Seder Plate 



Jewish 



Ceremonial Institutions 

and 

Customs 



by 
William Rosenau, Ph. D. 

(Johns Hopkins University) 



-> p ■> i <> » 



BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. 

THE FRIEDENWALD COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 

1903 






C?0 3 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 


Two Copies 


Received 


f - . 


1903 


^ Copyright Entry 
CLASS & XXc, No 
COPY B. 



COPYRIGHT, I963, BY WILLIAM ROSENAU 



c* x .„ € 



Printed, illustrated and bound by 

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. 



The photographs for the illustrations in this volume were taken by 
WM. J. GROENINGER 

BALTIMORE, MD. 



THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED 



BY THE AUTHOR 



TO HIS FRIEND 



MR. HENRY SONNEBORN 



OF THE 

SONNEBORN COLLECTION 

OF 

JEWISH CEREMONIAL OBJECTS 

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY 

BALTIMORE, MD. .. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I — The Synagogue and its Utensils n 

II — The Worshipper and the Week Day 

Service 45 

III — The Sabbath Service 67 

IV — Passover, Pentecost, and the Fasts... yj 
V — The Tishri Holidays and the Half- 
Holidays 91 

VI — Customs in the Home 107 

VII — Sabbath in the Home 115 

VIII — The Festivals in the Home 121 

IX — Circumcision and Redemption of the 

First Born 131 

X — Bar Mitzvah , 149 

XI — Marriage 155 

XII — Divorce and Chalitzah 167 

XIII— Mourning Customs 177 

XIV — Ritualistic Slaughtering .• 183 

Appendix — Catalogue of Sonneborn Collection 
of Jewish Ceremonial Objects, Johns 

Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md 189 



List of Illustrations 



Seder Plate, frontispiece 

Parocheth, Curtain for Ark, . . . facing page 28 
Torah with Robe and Ornaments, . 
Silver Shield for Torah, .... 

Silver Pointer, 

Silver Ornaments for the Upper Part 

of Torah, 

Unrolled Torah, 

Phylactery for Head, 

Phylactery for Arm, 

Rabbenu Tarn's Phylacteries, . . 

Large Talith, 

Fringe for Talith, 

Atarah, Silver Collar for Talith, . . 

Small Talith, 

Spice Boxes for Habdalah, . . . 
Candlestick for Habdalah, . . . 

Shofar (Ram's Horn), 

Palm Branch, 

Citron Receptacle, 

Parchment Scroll of the Book of Esther, 

Mezuzoth, 

Mezuzah Scroll, 

Sabbath Lamp, 

Candlesticks and Candelabra, . . 

Kiddush Cup, 

Passover Kiddush Goblet .... 

Chanukkah Lamp, 

Marriage Contract, 

Bill of Divorce, ........ 

Knife for Slaughtering of Fowl, . . 
Knife for Slaughtering of Small Cattle, 
Knife for Slaughtering of Large Cattle, 
Circumcision Knife, 



PREFACE 

The lectures, on which the matter con- 
tained in this volume is based, were deliv- 
ered by me before the Oriental Seminary 
of the Johns Hopkins University in the 
winter of 1901. The reading of their ab- 
stracts in the Jewish and secular press 
prompted many persons to ask me for the 
loan of my manuscript. When told that 
such loans could not be made, the sugges- 
tion was offered that I print the lectures 
for circulation. Feeling that the need of 
a description of Jewish ceremonial institu- 
tions and customs really exists, I deter- 
mined to cast the lectures into the present 
more popular form. The accompanying 
plates are based on the objects of the 
Sonneborn collection of Jewish ceremonial 
objects, at the Johns Hopkins University, 
of which collection a catalogue will be 
found appended to this book. 

W. R. 



CHAPTER I 

The Synagogue and its Utensils. 

The Jewish ceremonial institutions to be 
treated in the course of these chapters are 
such as are still in vogue among the great 
majority of Jews. The fact that not all 
Jews observe them is due to a marked ten- 
dency in the Synagogue to de-rabbinize 
Judaism, by laying less emphasis on the 
forms and more on the spirit of the faith. 
There is, however, not a single Jewish con- 
gregation, be the congregation ever so rad- 
ical in its opposition to ritualism, in which 
all ceremonial institutions have been abro- 
gated. The conviction is well nigh univer- 
sal that while some institutions are abso- 
lutely meaningless for modern Jews, others 
are closely interwoven with the history and 
life of Judaism because expressive of cer- 
tain distinct teachings, aims and ideals. 

All Jewish ceremonial institutions do not 
have the same origin. Many are compara- 



12 The Synagogue 

tively recent establishments; some are the 
creations of Talmudic times; and a few date 
back as far as the early days of the second 
Jewish commonwealth (circa 500 B. C). 

Taken in their entirety they may be 
grouped under two large divisions : 

(1) Those obtaining in the synagogue. 

(2) Those obtaining in the home. 

In taking Up the first class, a word or two 
should be said about the name, purpose, 
and origin of the synagogue. The term 
synagogue is the Greek ffo^ayioytj, an as- 
sembly (from (Twdysiv " to bring to- 
gether "). Its Hebrew equivalent is rpn 
nDiZjn and its Aramaic equivalent kD£"jd rva 
" house of assembly." 

Among Jews the synagogue is generally 
spoken of, as nD3Dn ivn, although the names 
n^sn m " house of prayer," &rhx rpn 
" house of God," mm jtq " house of the 
Lord," BHpe " sanctuary," and snpon n^n 
" house of holiness," titles by which the 
Temple at Jerusalem was originally known, 
are also applied to it. The term " syna- 



And its Utensils 13 

gogue," by which is meant the Jewish 
house of worship, was coined about the 
middle of the third century B. C. in Alex- 
andria, where the Jews first came in contact 
with Grecian culture and adopted Greek as 
their daily speech. 

The purpose of the synagogue was al- 
ways threefold : devotional, educational, 
and communal. While the Jew is not only 
not forbidden, but enjoined to indulge in 
private devotions at his home, and at times 
also at the homes of others, he is always 
expected to give proof of his identification 
with the congregation by attendance at set 
public services. The synagogue is consid- 
ered the means for the preservation of the 
Jewish religion. " Do not separate thy- 
self from the congregation " * is made the 
basis of this duty. On week days public 
services are conducted twice daily in the 
synagogue, in the morning a little after 
sunrise, and in the evening shortly before 

1 Aboth II, 5. 



14 The Synagogue 

sunset. On the Sabbath and on every holi- 
day, services are conducted on the eve of 
the day, in the morning, the afternoon and 
evening. 

Every synagogue is also a school. There 
the young are taught the branches neces- 
sary for an active participation in the pub- 
lic devotion and for the proper understand- 
ing of the literature and history of Israel. 
In many a synagogue we may find classes 
for adults meeting daily for the purpose of 
studying the Old Testament, the Mishnah, 
the Talmud, the Midrashim, and later Rab- 
binical works. This fact accounts for the 
name " Schul," or " Schule," as applied to 
the synagogue by German Jews and Jews 
of German extraction. 

Until recently almost every synagogue 
was the center of Jewish social activity. 
Whatever charity had to be dispensed 
among the deserving poor was furnished by 
the persons in congregational authority. 
In fact all communal affairs "im >3"i¥ were 
discussed and settled in the council of the 



And its Utensils 15 

synagogue. Such is still the case in the 
smaller Jewish centers. 

The synagogue, as a devotional, educa- 
tional and communal institution is accord- 
ing to Talmudic tradition post-exilic in 
origin. At the time of Ezra and Nehe- 
miah, the people held gatherings for the 
reading of the law and the offering of 
prayers. The Temple and synagogue 
stood side by side. BnpD rvn 1 ? p*an KnB^a tq 
" The synagogue is second only to the 
sanctuary," said an ancient teacher. 2 In the 
second temple a hall known as " The hall 
of hewn stone " JVTJn riDfc?? was devoted 
to synagogal purposes. Already before 
the destruction of the second temple (70 
A. C.) the synagogue grew in prominence 
as a social factor. We are told in the Tal- 
mud, that synagogues flourished in all 
towns and villages of Palestine. There 
were some even in Jerusalem. The Pales- 
tinean synagogues, mentioned as having 

2 Tar gum Ezek. 11: 6. 



16 The Synagogue 

arisen from time to time, are those of 
Lydda, Caesarea, Nazareth, Capernaum, 
and thirteen at Tiberias. The later Baby- 
lonian synagogues of which records have 
been preserved are those of Nehardea, Hu- 
zal, and Mata Mechasia. Celebrated syna- 
gogues located beyond Palestine and its 
immediate surroundings, which are spoken 
of, are those of Alexandria, Antioch, Da- 
mascus, Thessalonica, Ephesus, Corinth, 
Athens, and Rome. 

The architecture of synagogues is not 
according to any fixed plan. All sorts of 
designs have been followed, the Moorish 
predominating and the Gothic having been 
carefully avoided. Israel Abrahams com- 
menting on the architecture of the syna- 
gogue says : " As to the shape of syna- 
gogues, no special form can be called Jew- 
ish. A famous authority of the last cen- 
tury maintained that no Jewish law old or 
new restricted the fancy of synagogue 
architects in this respect. He, himself, au- 
thorized the choice of an octagonal form, 



And its Utensils 17 

and this shape is now rather popular on 
the continent. . . . The Temple courts — 
which were used for prayer meetings — 
were oblong or square, but there was at 
one time a prevalent notion in England 
that synagogues were round." 3 

The site chosen for the erection of syna- 
gogues is always a prominent one. Syna- 
gogues are usually built at street corners, 
near gateways, along running streams of 
water, or in open fields. The attempt, 
whenever possible, is made to build syna- 
gogues on elevated ground in order that 
the house of God may be the most con- 
spicuous structure. Rab, a teacher of the 
third century, remarks, that the city in 
which private residences tower above the 
synagogue cannot escape destruction. 4 
And Rab Ashi (352-427 A. C.) believes, 
that the preservation of the Babylonian 
city Sura in times of trying persecution 
must be attributed to the fact that its 

3 Abrahams : " Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," 
p. 30. "Sabbath 11, a. 

2 



18 The Synagogue 

synagogues surpassed all other structures 
in size. A custom worthy of notice is, 
that a synagogue was never torn down or 
disposed of before another existed to take 
its place. 

The position of the synagogue is regu- 
lated by custom. The majority of the syna- 
gogues face West and those which do not 
have their auditoriums so arranged that 
worshippers face the East while praying. 
Or, to put it in different words, the entrance 
is in most instances on the west side of 
the building and the ark toward which the 
worshippers turn while praying, is along 
the eastern wall. According to the Mish- 
nah 5 the Jews at the time of the existence 
of the temple turned to the West while 
praying, as a protest against sun-worship- 
pers who were in the habit of greeting the 
sun by turning toward it in the morning. 
When sun-worship ceased, about the time 
of the Israelitish dispersion 70 A. C, Jews 
living west of Jerusalem turned eastward 

5 Succah 5: 4. 



And its Utensils 19 

as a mark of grief and hope, while those 
east of Jerusalem turned westward. An- 
other reason for the existence of this cus- 
tom is supposed to be found in I Kings 
8:48. 

" And (they) pray unto Thee toward their land 
which Thou gavest unto their fathers, the city which 
Thou hast chosen and the house which I have built 
for Thy name." . 

Whether synagogues need to be built so 
that worshippers turn toward the East is 
a matter of dispute among the teachers of 
the Talmud. Rabbi Abin declared the cus- 
tom a law only while the temple existed, 
and Rabbis Ishmael and Oshaiah believed 
it unnecessary on the ground that God is 
everywhere and not confined to one spot. 

Although in the synagogues there is a 

total absence of all images, portraits, and 

statues because of Exodus 20 : 3, 4, 

" Thou shalt not have any other gods before Me ; 
Thou shalt not make unto thyself any graven image, 
or the likeness of anything in the heavens above, the 
earth beneath, or the waters under the earth," 

the interior of synagogues is far from being 
severely plain. We often find Scriptural 



20 The Synagogue 

passages inscribed along the walls. In 
some instances the decorations are costly. 
Tradition tells of the marvelous beauty of 
the Alexandrian synagogue. Spanish and 
Italian synagogues were famous for their 
elaborateness. The lion is the favorite dec- 
oration. It was always regarded the sym- 
bol of protection and reminded the wor- 
shipper of Genesis 49 : 9. 

"Like a lion's whelp, O Judah, from the prey, my 
son, thou risest." 

The double triangle TH p» " The shield 
of David," although visible on the exterior 
and interior of almost every synagogue, is 
of anything but Jewish origin. 6 

Israel Abrahams remarks : " Some au- 
thorities applied the restriction (namely of 
decorating with images) only to the human 
figure. . . . Others forbade all representa- 
tion of natural objects. ... In the twelfth 
century the Cologne synagogue had painted 
glass windows and it was not an unknown 

6 Friedlander's " Jewish Religion." 



And its Utensils 21 

thing for birds and snakes, probably gro- 
tesques, rather than accurate representa- 
tions, to appear on the walls of the syna- 
gogue without Rabbinical sanction." 

In the majority of synagogues we find 
no musical instruments. Wherever the 
organ exists it is a comparatively recent 
institution. The reason for the absence 
of instrumental music lies in the prohibition 
to play instruments on Sabbaths and Holy 
days 8 (as such playing is considered work) 
and in the desire to preserve an apparent 
mourning for the destruction of the temple. 

Only a small proportion of synagogues 
can boast of family pews. In most of them 
the women are separated from the men; 
the latter congregating in the so-called 
" court for men " d^:k mrr, and the for- 
mer in the so-called " court for women " 
D»G?J mil;- To the court for men women 
are not admitted. The court for women is, 
as a rule, a room adjoining the court for 

7 Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 
29. " Erubin 104, a. 



22 The Synagogue 

men, the two courts communicating by a 
window or balcony. If there is no sepa- 
rate apartment for women, the women are 
given seats behind the men, and are cur- 
tained off from the latter. It is in this way 
that the women are enabled to follow the 
services. Galleries, like those in modern 
synagogues, where family pews have not 
yet been introduced, were not known in 
earlier times. The separation of the sexes 
undoubtedly dates back to the D'GM mm 
" the court for women " in the Temple. 9 
The reasons urged at present for the exclu- 
sion of women from the main auditorium 
of some synagogues are, the Biblical pre- 
cedent that women were not permitted to 
enter the premises of the sanctuary, and the 
fear that their presence might distract the 
attention of the men in their devotions. 
Israel Abrahams tells, that formerly, in 
their own prayer meetings, the women were 
led by female precentors, some of whom ac- 
quired enviable reputations as such. The 

9 Middoth 2: 5. 



And its Utensils 2.3 

epitaph of one of them, Urania of Worms, 
belonging perhaps to the thirteenth cen- 
tury, runs thus : 

" This headstone commemorates the eminent and 
excellent lady Urania, the daughter of R. Abraham, 
who was the chief of the synagogue singers. His 
prayer for his people rose up unto glory. 

And as to her, she, too, with sweet tunefulness 
officiated before the female worshippers to whom she 
sang the hymnal portions. In devout service her 
memory shall be preserved." 10 

The seats for the worshippers are in 
many instances arranged along the walls 
of the synagogue in order to leave the cen- 
ter of the auditorium perfectly free for the 
pulpit. In such instances the seats of the 
learned of the congregation are nearest to 
the eastern wall or immediately in front of 
the ark. 

As a rule the auditorium consists of three 
parts corresponding to the three apart- 
ments of the temple of Jerusalem. The 
first apartment, as one enters the door of 
the auditorium, corresponding to the tem- 
ple court, is the space occupied by the con- 

10 " Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," p. 26. 



24 The Synagogue 

gregation during worship. The second 
apartment, corresponding to the inner 
space of the temple, where altar, show 
bread, table, and candelabra were found, 
consists of a platform with the ]Ph)& (lit. 
" table ") " reading desk." In the Talmud 
this platform is called " bema " (from the 
Greek /%*«). It is known also by the name 
" almemer " corrupted from the Arabic 
" al-minbar," pulpit. The third apartment, 
corresponding to the " Holy of Holies " in 
the temple with the ark of the covenant 
in which were deposited the two tablets of 
stone, consists of the ark with the scrolls 
of the law. The third apartment is sepa- 
rated from the second by a " curtain " rpia 

There is nothing in the first apartment, 
the space occupied by the congregation, re- 
quiring special description. 

The second apartment, bema, or " al- 
memar," is a raised platform. The officiat- 
ing precentor, known as "in* n*?w " mes- 
senger of the congregation " to the Most 
High, here conducts the services and reads 



And its Utensils 25 

the sections from the law and the prophets. 
It is also the place where all public an- 
nouncements are made. In conducting 
the services the appointed readers in ortho- 
dox synagogues always face the East and 
hence have their backs turned to the con- 
gregation. The reading desk, also called 
KWD is always decorated with a richly 
embroidered cover. In some synagogues 
the foundation of the bema extends several 
inches below the floor of the auditorium, 
in order that the following passage may be 
literally observed : 
" Out of the depths have I cried unto the Lord." 11 

If the bema is not built thus, special 
prayers directed to God are delivered from 
a place lower than the bema, usually the 
place between the bema and the ark. 

In many synagogues there is no space 
between the bema and the ark — the bema 
being pushed forward toward the ark. Mai- 
monides, a teacher of the twelfth century, 

11 Ps. 130: I. 



26 The Synagogue 

fixes the bema in the center of the auditor- 
ium, as located in the ancient Alexandrian 
synagogue, in order that the precentor may 
be heard equally well in all parts of the 
building. Joseph Caro>, a Polish teacher 
of the sixteenth century, author of the 
Shulchan Aruch, " the prepared table," a 
code on the Jewish ritual, to which frequent 
references will be made, grants the privi- 
lege of moving the bema toward the ark. 
In Germany, Austria, England, France and 
America, Jews have built synagogues avail- 
ing themselves of the privilege granted by 
Joseph Caro, while in Portugal and Spain 
the opinion of Maimonides is respected. 

Between the bema and the ark, that is, 
immediately in front of the ark, we find 
suspended the Ton ij " perpetual lamp." 
It is, as its name indicates, kept constantly 
burning. It is made of gold, silver or bur- 
nished brass. As an institution of the syna- 
gogue it is a comparatively recent estab- 
lishment. It is not mentioned by Rabbin- 
ical teachers. Its Biblical authority is : 



And its Utensils 27 

" And thou shalt command the children of Israel 
that they bring the pure olive oil beaten out for the 
lighting to cause the lamp to burn always. In the 
tabernacle of the congregation without the veil 
which is before the testimony Aaron and his sons 
shall order it from evening to morning before the 
Lord. It shall be a statute forever unto their gen- 
erations, on behalf of the children of Israel." 13 

Symbolically it is the representation of 
the conviction of Jews, that the light of 
instruction issues from the synagogue. 

The ark, called mn or pi« or wpn p-iN, 
and occupying the middle of the east side of 
every synagogue is constructed of either 
wood or marble. In earlier times it was 
simply a niche in the wall. It is the reposi- 
tory for the scrolls, of which in all congre- 
gations there are almost always several. 
Some congregations are known to have be- 
tween thirty and forty. The ark is always 
approached by steps leading to it from the 
second apartment. On the top of every ark 
are found two tablets, with the first two 
words of each of the ten commandments in 
Hebrew characters, representative of the 

12 Ex. 27: 20, 21. 



28 The Synagogue 

two tablets of stone brought by Moses 
from Mt. Sinai. Immediately below these 
tablets the inscription now nr>K •>£ >:& vi 
" Know before Whom thou art standing," 
is seen in many synagogues. The whole 
ark, or sometimes only the receptacle for 
the scrolls, is covered by a curtain, always 
beautifully embroidered. This curtain is 
made either of satin, silk or velvet. A fa- 
vorite figure on the curtain is a crown with 
the letters rva the initials of min ire 
" The crown of the law " below it. An in- 
scription often found on the curtain is : *rW 
TDn mb mrp " I have always set the 
Lord before me." 13 On different occasions 
we find different colored curtains; the cur- 
tain of the ark, for the most part, corre- 
sponding in color with the cover of the 
reader's desk and with the robes of the 
scrolls. If, for example, red prevails on 
Sabbaths, purple is used on Passover, Feast 
of Weeks, and Feast of Booths. White is, 
however, everywhere the color of the vest- 

13 Ps. 16:8. 




Parochetli— Curtain for Ark 



And its Utensils 29 

ments on the New Year's festival and the 
Day of Atonement. 

Formerly, the ark was portable, like the 
ark of the covenant. On certain extraordi- 
nary occasions, when on account of absence 
of rain a general fast was ordered/ the ark 
with the scrolls was carried into the street 
where special services were conducted. 

The scrolls found in the ark contain the 
five books of Moses in Hebrew characters. 
The text is unpointed and unpunctuated, 
that is, only the consonants are given and 
stops are not indicated. Every scroll is 
known as a " sefer," " book " or as 
" torah," " law " or as " sefer torah," " the 
book of the law." 

The special rules governing the making 
of the scrolls are given in Caro-'s Shulchan 
Aruch. 14 The sefer torah, or scroll, is a 
parchment roll written by hand upon the 
thoroughly cured skin of a clean animal. 
The skin of the calf or sheep is usually 
taken for this purpose, though the skin of 

14 Yoreh Deah, Sefer Thorah, §270-284. 



30 The Synagogue 

other animals may be used. The ink is 
made of lamp-black. While the text is 
unpointed and unpunctuated the para- 
graphs are marked according to the Ma- 
sora, some starting a new line, others leav- 
ing space at the end of the line. The width 
of a leaf, often consisting of several col- 
umns, dare not exceed the circumference of 
the scroll when closed. The width of the 
margin alongside of the separate columns is 
regulated by law. The separate leaves, 
when completed, are fastened together with 
the sinews of a clean animal, so as to form 
a scroll, and are then mounted on wooden 
rollers, the handles of which, protruding 
above and below, are of either wood, ivory 
or silver. The writer, " sopher," must have 
his attention riveted upon his work. The 
parchment must be written upon one side 
only. When a leaf has been completed the 
writing must always be turned upward. 
If dust gathers on the written parchment it 
is regarded a mark of disrespect shown the 
law. Mistakes may be corrected, but no 



And its Utensils 31 

mistakes should be left uncorrected for 
more than thirty days. The person writ- 
ing a scroll must be not only an expert 
scribe, but also a man of unquestioned 
piety. 

When the scroll is in the ark it is attired 
as follows: First it is kept secure by a 
linen, silk, or velvet wrapper, usually in- 
scribed; or by a silver band with clasps. 
The linen, silk, and velvet wrappers are in 
some localities the donations of the male 
children and are brought to the synagogue 
by them on the occasion of the children's 
first visit to the house of God. This first 
visit usually takes place as soon as possible 
after circumcision. The child is taken to 
the synagogue and there it places the wrap- 
per on the scrolls. In this event the wrap- 
per contains the full names of the child and 
of his parents in Hebrew characters. When 
the scroll is secure a robe is placed over it. 
Robes are of different colors, mostly cor- 
responding to the color of the curtain sus- 
pended in front of the ark, and are beauti- 



32 The Synagogue 

fully embroidered in gold. Some of the 
inscriptions embroidered on the robes are : 

riDWj m.T min " The law of the Lord is 
perfect." 

ma mrp mvo " The commandment of 
the Lord is clear." 

nin> D>pnv -piD " The support of the 
righteous is the Lord." 

n'3 meaning min ira " The crown of the 
law." Sometimes we find only the double 
triangle, the so-called shield of David. 

In addition to the robe many a scroll is 
handsomely decorated with trimmings, 
known as BHip ^3 " holy vessels " made of 
metal. These vessels are for the most part 
of silver. Over the upper rollers are placed, 
artistically worked, top pieces with bells; 
over the robe an elaborate breast plate is 
suspended by a chain; and over the breast 
plate a pointer extends, terminating in the 
figure of a hand, and hence called " yad " 
(hand), with which the reader points to the 
text while reciting the Pentateuchal por- 
tion. This pointer is suspended from the 




Torah with Robe and Ornaments 





~ J0 


I 




pst^j 


.; •- „ . - - ._-■- ■ .. ... *1 


p 






Mptl;.'' 


^ 




111 


JJr-;. ""-^" ; 










i 

* 


''^iS C M & ■* ,', 





And its Utensils 33 

scroll by a chain and is often twelve inches 
long. A point worth mentioning is that 
the top pieces for the rollers and the breast 
plate are usually decorated at the upper 
end with a crown emblematic of the crown 
of the law. In addition to the crown dec- 
orating the breast plate, there are also the 
figures of lions — the symbols of strength. 

The scroll is read every Sabbath, usually 
between the morning service " shacharith " 
and the additional or forenoon service 
" mussaf." 

The recitation of the portion from the 
scrolls is called " the reading of the law," 
minn riNnp. The reading of the law once 
every seven years we find enjoined in Deut. 
31:10-13. 

" At the end of every seven years, in the solemni- 
ty of the year of release, in the Feast of Tabernacles 
when all Israel is come to appear before the Lord 
thy God, in the place which He shall choose, thou 
shalt read the law before all Israel in their hearing. 
Gather the people together, men, women and chil- 
dren, and the stranger that is within thy gates, that 
they may hear, and that they may learn, and fear the 
Lord your God, and observe to do all the words of 

3 



34 The Synagogue 

this law; and that their children, which have not 
known anything, may hear and learn to fear the Lord 
your God." 

For the purpose of Sabbath readings the 
Pentateuch is divided into a number of sec- 
tions, of which there are twelve in Genesis, 
eleven in Exodus, ten in Leviticus, ten in 
Numbers and eleven in Deuteronomy; or 
fifty-four in all. In a year of 12 lunar 
months, consisting of either 353, 354 or 
355 days, there are at the most 51 Sab- 
baths. To get over the entire law in one 
year in those congregations, in which the 
annual cycle prevails, the combination of 
two consecutive sections into one takes 
place on some Sabbaths. The reading of 
the law is conducted in regular order be- 
ginning with the first chapter of Genesis, 
on the Sabbath immediately following the 
Festival of Rejoicing Over the Law, cele- 
brated on the 23rd day of Tishri. In order 
not to bring the law to an end at any time, 
the first chapter of Genesis is read on the 
Feast of Rejoicing Over the Law as soon 



And its Utensils 35 

as the book of Deuteronomy has been com- 
pleted. The different sections are known 
by names taken from one word or two 
words in their respective opening verses. 
Thus the first one is known as " Bereshith " 
(in the beginning), the second as " Noah," 
the third as " Lech Lecha " (get thee out), 
and so on. On holidays the portions of the 
law read are usually those which contain 
some direct or indirect reference to the 
occasion celebrated. If a holiday happens 
to fall on Sabbath, the regular Sabbath 
portion is set aside for the holiday section. 
On Sabbaths occurring on the new moon 
and on holidays two scrolls are usually 
read. From the first, the Sabbath or holi- 
day section is read; and from the second, 
the account of the offerings brought on that 
day in the Temple at Jerusalem according 
to the Numbers 28. Each section is called 
a sidra (order), and each sidra is divided 
into seven sub-sections. When the scroll is 
put on the desk eight males are called to the 
bema, every one of whom recites the follow- 



36 The Synagogue 

ing blessing before the reading of a sub-sec- 
tion: 

" Praise ye the Lord, who is to be praised ; praised 
be the Lord, who is to be praised forever and aye." 

" Praised be Thou, Lord our God, King of the 
Universe, who has chosen us from among all nations 
and has given us His law. Praised be Thou, O 
Lord, Giver of the law." 

Upon the completion of the sub-section 

the person called to the scroll recites this 

second benediction : 

" Praised be Thou, Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, Who has given us a law of truth and has 
placed within us the longing for life eternal. 
Praised be Thou, O Lord, Giver of the law." 

Originally each person called to the desk 
read his own sub-section. Later, however, 
in order not to embarrass those unable to 
read the unpointed text, the precentor, or 
reader, appointed for the purpose (Klip ^2) 
read the whole sidra; the only exception 
made being the occasion of a boy's Bar- 
mitzvah, confirmation (an event which 
commemorates the attainment of his thir- 
teenth birthday), when the boy reads his 
portion himself. The order in which peo- 




Unrolled Torah 




And its Utensils 37 

pie are called to the desk is as follows: 
First, a representative of the priestly family 
of Aaron called a Cohen; then a descendant 
of the house of Levi, called Levi; and then 
six others, supposed to belong to the other 
tribes of Israel, who are simply termed 
Israelites. The six, known as Israelites, are 
summoned to the desk as the third, the 
fourth, the fifth, the sixth, the seventh and 
Maftir " he who is to conclude." Among 
Portuguese Jews those called to the desk 
are summoned by their full Hebrew names. 
In earlier times this custom obtained 
among all Jews. 

The eighth person summoned (Maftir), 
whose Pentateuchal sub-section consists of 
the last few verses of the seventh sub-sec- 
tion, is obliged to read the portion from 
the Prophets assigned for the Sabbath. A 
prophetical section is read on every Sab- 
bath and holiday. The subject matter of 
the prophetical section selected by the litur- 
gists of the synagogue always treats a 
theme similar to the one discussed in the 



38 The Synagogue 

Pentateuchal portion. The origin of the 
Haphtaroth, prophetical sections, is a mat- 
ter of dispute. One theory holds, that they 
originated in times of persecution, when 
Jews were forbidden to read the scroll. 
Another claims, that the Haphtaroth 
served as a protest against the Samaritans, 
who regarded only the Torah and not the 
other Scriptural writings holy. It is, how- 
ever, more likely that these prophetical sec- 
tions were introduced as soon as the pro- 
phetical writings became a part of the Bib- 
lical canon. 

The scroll is also read during the service 
on Sabbath afternoon (the section then 
always consisting of the opening sub-sec- 
tion of the portion of the following Sab- 
bath), and on Mondays and Thursdays at 
the early morning service. The reading 
of the scroll on Mondays and Thursdays is 
supposed to have originated at the time of 
Ezra, who provided for such reading for 
the benefit of the country people. They 
came to the city on these days and could 



And its Utensils 39 

not, on account of the Sabbath law, which 
prevented their travelling great distances, 
come to listen to the reading of the regular 
portion on the Sabbath day. 

In some congregations, instead of an 
annual cycle of the reading of the Penta- 
teuch, a three years' cycle, and in others 
even a seven years' cycle obtains. The 
great majority of congregations, however, 
still adhere to the annual cycle. 

The calling of persons to the desk for 
the recitation of benedictions over a sub- 
section has been discontinued by many 
congregations in order to maintain the de- 
corum during services, which was often 
materially impaired. In such cases the reg- 
ularly officiating precentor is the only one 
to recite the benedictions. 

It ought to be stated here that the num- 
ber of persons called to the bema in those 
congregations where the annual cycle ob- 
tains is 3 on Sabbath afternoons and week 
days; 4 on new moon and half holidays 
(Choi Amod), by which is meant the festive 



40 The Synagogue 

week of Passover and Feast of Booths; 5 
on festivals; and 6 on the Day of Atone- 
ment. These numbers given for holidays 
and the Day of Atonement do not include 
the Maftir, or concluding section accom- 
panied by a prophetical portion, which is 
always added on these days, as has been 
stated before. 

The manner of the reading of the law is 
worthy of explanation. The section is usu- 
ally sung. This is also the case in the read- 
ing of the Haphtarah, though the intona- 
tion of the Haphtarah is different from 
that of the sections of the scrolls. The ac- 
cents found in the Masoretic text of the 
Bible, serve as musical notes to indicate 
how certain words are to be intoned. The 
Greek word rpomj (Tropp) is the name 
given by German Jews to the peculiar 
chant, while the Hebrew " Neginah " 
(melody), is used for the same purpose 
among Portuguese Jews. This chant has 
been developed into an elaborate system. 
Among the more progressive, or so-called 



And its Utensils 41 

Reform Jews, the chant is not used in the 
reading of the Scriptures. Nor is the chant 
the same for all occasions and among all 
Jews. The chant for the New Year and Day 
of Atonement is different from that of the 
Sabbath, and that of German Jews from 
that of the Portuguese Jews. The custom 
of chanting the Bible is undoubtedly as old 
as the use of the Scriptures in the service 
of the synagogue. A Talmudical authority 
remarks : 

" Whoever reads the Bible without pleas- 
antness and teaches the oral law without 
song, to him are applied the words taken 
from Ezekiel 20 : 25 : 'I also gave them 
statutes which were not good.' " 1B 

The removal of the scrolls from the ark 
before reading and their return to the ark 
after reading is accompanied with great 
solemnity. The character of the service 
is not always the same the world over. 
Jews located in sections, widely separated 

16 Megillah 29, b. 



42 The Synagogue 

from one another, have different ritualistic 
forms of procedure. The one most com- 
mon in Europe and America is given here. 
First a hymn of glorification is rendered, 
opening: " There is none among the gods 
like Thee, O Lord." The congregation 
rises while the ark is opened and the pre- 
centor steps before the ark reciting the 
words : " When the ark journeyed, Moses 
said : Arise, O Lord, and let Thine ene- 
mies be scattered and let those who hate 
Thee flee before Thee. From Zion the law 
goes forth and the word of the Lord from 
Jerusalem. Praised be He, who gave the 
law to Israel, His people, in its holiness." 
Then follow the declaration of the oneness 
of God and the proclamation of His great- 
ness. From the ark the precentor goes in 
solemn procession with the scroll to the 
bema, where the ornaments, robe and wrap- 
per are removed, and the scroll is prepared 
for reading. Before the reading takes place 
the scroll is unrolled to the extent of a few 
columns of the text, lifted up before the 



And its Utensils 43 

assembled congregation and the precentor 
exclaims : 

" This is the law which Moses put before the chil- 
dren of Israel by command of the Lord." 

The honor of closing and dressing the 
scrolls is in most congregations conferred 
upon two worshippers, the one holding, 
while the other re-invests the scroll with 
wrapper, robe and ornaments. 

When the scroll is returned to the ark 
songs of praise are again rendered, which 
conclude with the following exclamations : 

" Valuable instruction I have given you. Forsake 
ye not my law. It is a tree of life to those who lay 
hold of it, and its supporters are happy. Its ways 
are ways of pleasantness, and all its paths are peace. 
Cause us, O Lord, to return to Thee and we shall 
return. Renew our days as of old." 



CHAPTER II 

The Worshipper and the Week Day 
Service 

In our attempt to become acquainted 
with the religious customs and practices of 
Israel we shall in this chapter make in 
thought a visit to the Jewish house of wor- 
ship and observe some of the special insti- 
tutions worthy of note. There is perhaps 
no class of people to whom the house of 
worship is more sacred than is the syna- 
gogue to the Jew. The laws preventing 
its desecration are numerous and are 
framed to meet all violations of sanctity, in 
which men may indulge. The Jewish 
teachers of the second century placed the 
same emphasis upon respect for the syna- 
gogue as upon regard for the destroyed 
temple, of which it was the substitute. 
They forbade laughing and talking within 
its walls. 1 At his entrance and departure 

1 Megillah 28, a. 



46 The Worshipper and 

the worshipper is, as they said, to conduct 
himself with decorum. They tell that one 
should go quickly to the house of God, 
but leave it slowly. 2 Eating and drinking 
are prohibited in the synagogue. 3 Refuge 
from the heat or from rain was not to be 
taken in it. 4 People are admonished to be 
among the first at its services. 5 Before en- 
tering the synagogue the hands should be 
washed. For this purpose a pitcher with 
water is found in the ante-room, corre- 
sponding to the laver before the sanctuary 
and temple. In some localities burial from 
the synagogue is forbidden because of the 
defilement of the holy place by the corpse. 
An exception is made only in case the dead 
was one learned in the law. 

Upon close examination we find that a 
public service never opens unless the 
quorum fixed by tradition is present. This 
quorum consists of ten men. Less than 
ten men is never regarded a congregation 

2 Sabbath 32, a. 4 Megillah 28, b. 

3 Megillah 28, a. 5 Baba Metzia 107, a. 



The Week Day Service 47 

sufficiently large for public devotion. In 
the Ethics of the Fathers we read 

"If ten are assembled and are engaged in the study 
of the law, the Shechinah resides among them." 6 

It is on the basis of this opinion that the 
size of the quorum was fixed. While ten 
constituted a quorum in the earliest days 
of the existence of the synagogue, Treatise 
Soferim mentions that in Palestine services 
were once held with seven men. 7 Women 
do not count as members of the quorum. 
The Rabbinical law exempts women from 
the performance of all religious duties 
which are to be executed at a fixed time. 3 
In some instances of the modern occidental 
synagogue, however, not only women are 
counted in the congregational quorum, but 
also ten people are not considered abso- 
lutely necessary for public worship. 

Many communities are in the habit of 
having ten persons attend services at a 
compensation, in order that the holding of 

6 Aboth3:4. 7 Soferim 10: 7. 8 Kiddushin 1: 7. 



48 The Worshipper and 

a service be not prevented. During the 
Middle Ages, when in all probability this 
custom arose, 9 the persons engaged for this 
purpose were the older students of the Tal- 
mudic schools. Later, however, it became 
customary to select persons from the de- 
serving poor. 

While in the synagogue worshippers 
keep their heads covered, a practice ob- 
served also by some persons when reading 
any and every Hebrew text, because litera- 
ture written in the so-called " holy tongue " 
is considered specially sacred and its study 
is regarded a religious act. A not insignifi- 
cant number of Jews consider it a sacrilege 
to go with uncovered head at any time. 
There is no Biblical warrant for this cus- 
tom, although it is often stated, that as the 
high priest wore a head covering when 
officiating in the sanctuary, so should every 
Jew when praying. The wearing of the 
head gear is undoubtedly nothing more 

9 Abrahams : " Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," 
P- 57- 



The Week Day Service 49 

than a remnant of orientalism. Among 
Mohammedans and Parsees the same prac- 
tice obtains. Nor does the lengthy discus- 
sion of the Talmudical passage iB>&n n« V K? 
m?»n w nm "One should not make 
his head light before the Eastern gate " 10 
convince the student that the wearing of 
the hat was anything more than a custom 
and not based on law. 

If some people consider the wearing of 
a head covering an important feature in 
the devotion of the Jew, the cause is none 
other but the insistence of Paul of Tarsus, 
that men should sit in the church with 
uncovered head as the surest means of sev- 
ering their connection with the synagogue. 
Says Paul : 

" Every man praying or prophesying,' having his 
head covered, dishonoreth his head. For a man in- 
deed ought not to cover his head." X1 12 

10 Berachoth 54, a. 

11 1 Cor. 2 : 4, 7. 

12 For an exhaustive treatise of this custom in all 
its various aspects we refer to Fluegel's " Gedanken 
ueber Religioese Braeuche und Anschauungen." 



50 The Worshipper and 

In a number of Jewish congregations the 
head covering is removed during worship 
on the ground that occidental residence 
and oriental habits are incompatible. This 
is no new departure. Israel Abrahams tells, 
that on the Feast of Rejoicing over the law 
boys in the 15th century ascended the 
bema bare headed during the reading of 
the Pentateuchal section. 13 Even adults 
were known to have prayed bare headed in 
France. 14 

A point noteworthy in this connection 
is, that as the head is to be kept covered 
the hands are to be kept uncovered. 
Gloves must therefore be removed during 
devotion. This custom is based on the 
synonymous use of praying with the Bibli- 
cal phrase " spreading forth the hands." 

During the early morning prayers on 
week days, but not on Sabbaths and holi- 
days, in the Jew's private as well as public 

13 Abrahams: "Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," 
P. 32. 

14 Geiger : Juedische Zeitschrift, III, 142. 



The Week Day Service 51 

devotions, males over thirteen years of age 
wear Tefillin (phylacteries), on the left arm 
and head. The Tefillin are two square 
boxes of hard parchment, each of which is 
called a " Bayith," receptacle, varying in 
size from half of a cubic inch to two and 
three cubic inches. Each receptacle rests 
on a base with a protruding loop, through 
which a leather strap is drawn. The two 
ends of the strap are tied together so that 
the knot formed by the strap of the phylac- 
tery for the head has the shape of the 
Hebrew letter " daleth " 1 and the knot of 
the phylactery of the arm has the shape 
of the Hebrew letter " yad " \ On the 
phylactery of the arm we see no letter im- 
pressed, while on two sides of the exterior 
of the phylactery for the head we see the 
letter " shin " W embossed. This " shin," 
together with the "daleth" and " yad," 
just referred to, constitute the word HP 
(" shaddai ") " Almighty." The interior of 
the phylactery for the head is divided into 
four compartments. Into each one of these 



52 The Worshipper and 

is put a piece of parchment containing one 
of the four sections of the Pentateuch, in- 
terpreted as commanding the wearing of 
the phylacteries. The parchment put into 
the first compartment, starting with the 
right side as worn on the head, contains the 
following : 

" And the Lord spoke unto Moses saying, Sanctify 
unto me all the first born, whatsoever openeth the 
womb among the children of Israel, both of man and 
of beast : it is mine. 

And Moses said unto the people, Remember this 
day in which ye came out from Egypt, out of the 
house of bondage; for by strength of hand the Lord 
brought you out from this place ; there shall no leav- 
ened bread be eaten. 

This day came ye out in the month of Abib. 

And it shall be when the Lord shall bring thee into 
the land of the Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the 
Amorites, and the Hivites, and the Jebusites, which 
he sware unto thy fathers to give thee, a land flow- 
ing with milk and honey, that thou shalt keep this 
service in this month. 

Seven days thou shalt eat unleavened bread, and in 
the seventh day shall be a feast to the Lord. 

Unleavened bread shall be eaten seven days, and 
there shall no leavened bread be seen with thee, 
neither shall there be leaven seen with thee in all thy 
quarters. 

And thou shalt shew thy son in that day, saying, 
This is done because of that which the Lord did unto 
me when I came forth out of Egypt. 



The Week Day Service 53 

And it shall be for a sign unto thee upon thine 
hand, and for a memorial between thine eyes, that the 
•Lord's law may be in thy mouth; for with a strong 
hand hath the Lord brought thee out of Egypt. 

Thou shalt therefore keep this ordinance in his 
season from year to year." 10 

The second compartment contains these 
passages : 

"And it shall be when the Lord shall bring thee 
into the land of the Canaanites, as he sware unto 
thee and unto thy fathers and shall give it thee. 

That thou shalt set apart unto the Lord all that 
openeth the matrix and every firstling that cometh 
of a beast which thou hast; the male shall be the 
Lord's. 

And every firstling of an ass thou shalt redeem 
with a lamb; and if thou wilt not redeem it then thou 
shalt break his neck; and all the first born of man 
among thy children shalt thou redeem. 

And it shall be when thy son asketh thee in time to 
come saying, What is this? that thou shalt say unto 
him, By strength of hand the Lord brought us out 
from Egypt, from the house of bondage ; 

And it came to pass when Pharaoh would hardly 
let us go, that the Lord slew all the first born in the 
land of Egypt, both the first born of man and the 
first born of beasts; therefore I sacrifice to the Lord 
all that openeth the matrix being males; but all 
the first born of my children I redeem. 

And it shall be for a token upon thine hand and 
for frontlets between thine eyes ; for by strength of 
hand the Lord brought us forth out of Egypt." 16 

15 Ex. 13: 1-10. 16 Ex. 13: 11-16. 



54 The Worshipper and 

In the third compartment are the words : 

" Hear, O Israel, the Lord, our God, is one Lord. 

And thou shalt love the Lord, thy God, with all 
thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy 
might. 

And these words which I command thee this day 
shall be in thine heart; 

And thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy chil- 
dren, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in 
thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and 
when thou liest down, and when thou risest up. 

And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine 
hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thine 
eyes. 

And thou shalt write them upon the posts of thy 
house and on thy gates." 17 

The parchment in the fourth compart- 
ment reads : 

" And it shall come to pass if ye shall hearken dili- 
gently unto my commandments, which I command 
you this day, to love the Lord, your God, and to serve 
him with all your heart and with all your soul, 

That I will give you the rain of your land in his 
due season ; the first rain and the latter rain, that thou 
mayest gather in thy corn, and thy wine, and thine 
oil. 

And I will send grass in thy fields for thy cattle, 
that thou mayest eat and be full. 

Take heed to yourselves that your heart be not 
deceived and ye turn aside and serve other gods, and 
worship them; 

1T Deut. 6: 4-9. 



The Week Day Service 55 

And then the Lord's wrath be kindled against you, 
and He shut up the heaven that there be no rain, and 
that the land yield not her fruit; and lest ye perish 
quickly from off the good land which the Lord giveth 
you. 

Therefore shall ye lay up these, my words, in your 
heart and in your soul, and bind them for a sign 
upon your hand, that they may be as frontlets be- 
tween your eyes. 

And ye shall teach them, your children, speaking 
of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when 
thou walkest by the way, when thou liest down 
and when thou risest up. 

And thou shalt write them upon the door-posts of 
thine house and upon thy gates." 18 

The interior of the phylactery for the 
hand consists of only one compartment, into 
which is put a parchment containing the 
above four sections written continuously. 
The materials used in the making of the 
phylacteries must be of the skin of clean 
animals, and the sections indicated must be 
written according to the rules governing 
the writing of the scrolls. The Talmudists 
trace every feature of the phylacteries, cer- 
tainly without foundation, as far back as 
Moses, as they do almost every other cere- 

18 Deut. n: 13-20. 



56 The Worshipper and 

monial institution known to them. Al- 
though the straps of the phylacteries are 
usually of black leather, the use of black 
leather could not have been universal, as 
one Rabbi 19 is said to have fastened his phy- 
lacteries with purple ribbons. The Biblical 
passage, taken as the legal basis of the phy- 
lacteries, is the repeated Pentateuchal com- 
mand, " and thou shalt bind them for a sign 
upon thy hand, and they shall be as front- 
lets between thine eyes," which, in all prob- 
ability, is not to be taken literally, but figu- 
ratively. It, very likely, means to cherish 
and remember the words of the Lord. 

In putting the phylacteries on the body 
the phylactery of the arm is taken first. 
The box is fixed firmly on the naked left 
arm, immediately above the elbow, and 
while doing so the worshipper recites this 
benediction: 

" Praised be Thou, Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has sanctified us with His command- 
ments and commanded us to lay the phylacteries." 

19 Menachoth 34-36. 



The Week Day Service 57 

Then the strap is wound seven times 
about the arm below the elbow. There- 
upon the phylactery for the head is put on 
with the box placed in the middle of the 
forehead below the hair and the two straps 
are arranged to hang over the shoulders, 
one on each side. While putting on this 
phylactery this benediction is recited : 

" Praised be Thou, Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has sanctified us with His command- 
ments and enjoined upon us the commandment of 
the phylactery." 

Returning to the phylactery of the hand, 
its strap is wound three times about the 
middle finger and then around the whole 
hand. While doing this the following 
words are recited : 

"I betroth thee unto me forever; I betroth thee 
unto me in righteousness, in judgment, in kindness 
and in mercy. I betroth thee unto me in faithfulness 
and thou shalt know the Lord." 20 

The worshipper now petitions God to 
consider the performance of the command- 
ment regarding the phylacteries, as though 

20 Hosea 2: 21, 22. 



58 The Worshipper and 

all six hundred and thirteen command- 
ments had been faithfully executed. Here 
follows the devotion. 

When the devotion is ended the phylac- 
teries are usually removed, that of the head 
being taken first. In putting them aside 
the straps are twisted around the base of 
the phylacteries. The phylacteries, when 
not in use, are kept in a bag of velvet or 
silk, as a rule, beautifully embroidered with 
the shield of David, or otherwise orna- 
mented. While to-day phylacteries are 
worn by most Jews, only during their 
morning devotion, some people formerly 
wore them all day. There are some per- 
sons who lay two kinds of phylacteries; 
those of Rashi, a teacher of the 12th cen- 
tury, in whose phylacteries the Biblical 
sections of the parchment are written in 
the order stated above, and those of Rashi's 
grandson, Rabbi Jacob, known as Rabbenu 
Tarn, who held that the inverse of the order 
given by Rashi, should be the order of the 
Biblical sections on the parchments. The 



The Week Day Service 59 

Karaites, a sect established in the tenth 
century by Anan Ben David denying the 
authority of Rabbinical tradition and ad- 
hering only to the Bible, do not lay phylac- 
teries. Among many Jews of to-day they 
have also fallen into disuse. 

The term " Tefillin " reminds one of " te- 
nllah," prayer, and hence denotes things 
used during prayer. Originally it may have 
meant ornament. It is a substitute for the 
Biblical (totafah) "frontlet." Its English 
equivalent, phylacteries, is derived from the 
Greek <puXa-/.zrjpta not because they serve, 
like the (puXaxrrjpia, as amulets, but because 
the tefillin resemble the phylacteria in ex- 
ternal appearance. Placed on arm and 
head they are to serve as reminders to cher- 
ish with the heart and to contemplate with 
the mind the law of God. 

During the morning service every male 
adult wears also a (talith) praying scarf. 
The reader wears the talith on all occasions. 
In some congregations mourners wear it 
during the benediction, in which they extol 



60 The Worshipper and 

God's wisdom and greatness. On the Fast 
of Ab in commemoration of the destruction 
of Jerusalem, the talith is put on before the 
afternoon service in place of being put on 
at the beginning of the morning service. 
Among the Portuguese Jews even boys 
wear a talith. Some people have two pray- 
ing scarfs, one for week days and another 
of better material for Sabbaths and holi- 
days. It usually constitutes one of the 
remembrances given a boy on the occasion 
of his thirteenth birthday, the time of his 
religious majority. 

The talith is a rectangular piece of linen, 
wool, or silk cloth. Some teachers ob- 
jected to the linen praying scarf. The 
talith usually has blue or black stripes near 
its corners running all the way across the 
material and is decorated with a crown 
(atarah), consisting of a silk ribbon or a 
strip of either silver or gold passementerie, 
running along the exterior upper part, so 
that when put on, it fits around the neck. 
If the crown is of silver or gold it must be 




1 Large Talith 

2 Fringe for Talith 

3 Atarah— Silver Collar for Talith 



The Week Day Service 6i 

the pure metal and should be marked so. 
On each of the four corners of the talith are 
fringes — linen fringes for the linen talith, 
silk fringes for the silk talith, and woolen 
fringes for the woolen talith. Silk, wool 
and linen dare not be mixed, the mixture of 
various materials being forbidden by Bibli- 
cal law. 21 Should they be mixed the pray- 
ing shawl is unfit for ritualistic use. These 
fringes are attached in obedience to the 
following Biblical injunction : 

" Speak unto the children of Israel and bid them 
that they make them fringes in the borders of their 
garments, throughout their generations, and that they 
put upon the fringe of their borders a cord of blue ; 
and it shall be unto you for a fringe that you may 
look upon it and remember all the commandments of 
the Lord and do them; and that ye seek not after 
your own heart and your own eyes after which ye go 
astray." 22 

Another passage supposed to enjoin the 

use of the talith is : 

" Thou shalt make for thyself fringes upon the 
four corners of your garments with which thou cov- 
erest thyself." 23 

21 Lev. 19: 19; Deut. 22: 11. 

22 Numb. 15: 38, 39. 23 Deut. 22: 12. 



62 The Worshipper and 

In view of the fact that the exact shade 
of the prescribed purple cord in the fringe 
cannot be procured, white is used exclusive- 
ly. Already in Talmudic times, about the 
fifth century of the Christian era, white was 
substituted for the purple cord, owing to the 
difficulties of procuring the proper shade 
of purple. The material for the fringes 
must be manufactured for their express 
purpose. If of wool, they must be of wool 
carefully shorn, and not plucked from the 
sheep. The fringes must be spun by Jews. 
They may be spun by non-Jews, only pro- 
vided a Jew directs the work. These fringes 
are put in a hole about an inch from the 
edge of the talith. The manner of their 
attachment is the following : Four threads, 
one of which is longer than the others, are 
passed through the hole; the two parts of 
the threads are bound together by the 
longer thread in a double knot; then the 
longer part of the longer thread is wound 
seven times about the seven halves of the 
four threads; then follow eight windings, 



The Week Day Service 63 

then eleven, and then thirteen windings, 
and after each set of windings two knots 
are made. According to the Kabbalah, 
these knots and windings have a secret 
meaning. Making thirty-nine in all, they 
correspond to the numerical value of the 
letters constituting the two words "ins niiv 
" The Lord is One," since each letter of 
the Hebrew alphabet has numerical signifi- 
cance. 

The talith is worn either carefully folded 
over the shoulders, open and hanging over 
the back, or often over the head. When put 
on the worshipper recites : 

" Praised be Thou, Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has sanctified us with His command- 
ments, and commanded us to encircle ourselves with 
fringes." 

The merit attached to wearing the fringes 
is considered very great, as great as that of 
laying the phylacteries. The talith, when 
folded, is usually stored away in a beautiful 
bag made for the purpose. The bag is of 
either silk or velvet and handsomely em- 
broidered. 



64 The Worshipper and 

In distinction to the talith " gadol," the 
large praying scarf, used during public de- 
votions, there is the smaller praying scarf 
with fringes, used by all males, young boys 
included. It is known also by the name of 
" arba kanfoth," the four cornered gar- 
ment. It consists of any piece of cloth with 
an aperture in the center large enough 
to allow the head to pass through, so that 
half of it falls over and rests on the back, 
while the other half falls over and rests on 
the chest. It is usually worn below the 
outer garments and is put on in the morn- 
ing, immediately after washing. When put 
on, this benediction is recited : 

" Praised be Thou, Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has sanctified us with His command- 
ments and enjoined upon us the command with re- 
gard to the fringes." 

The arba kanfoth is not removed again 
until the wearer retires for the night. The 
small praying scarf undoubtedly originated 
at the time of persecution, when Jews were 




Small Talith 



The Week Day Service 65 

obliged to practice their ceremonies se- 
cretly. Like the phylacteries the praying 
scarf has fallen into disuse among some 
Jews. 



CHAPTER III 

The Sabbath Service 

From institutions characteristic of the 
week-day services and of services charac- 
teristic of the entire year let us proceed to 
those marking the Sabbath. The Jewish 
Sabbath and holy days do not begin with 
midnight, but with sundown of the day pre- 
ceding, and end with the following sun- 
down. This custom is based on the oft- 
recurring phrase in the Biblical creation 
story, " It was evening, and it was morn- 
ing " (the evening always preceding the 
morning in the mention of the day). In 
many synagogues the Sabbath is not wel- 
comed in any other way than by special 
hymns and songs, but into a great number 
of them a ceremony called the " Kiddush," 
a feature of the Sabbath sanctification in 
the Jewish home, has found its way. The 
" Kiddush " consists of the lifting up of a 
cup of wine by the precentor at the close 



68 The Sabbath Service 

of the evening devotions. In doing this 
he praises God the Creator of the Universe 
(who is reported to have rested on the sev- 
enth day), as Creator of the fruit of the 
vine, and for having ordained the Sabbath. 
The " Kiddush " runs as follows : 

" And it was evening and it was morning the sixth 
day. 

And the heavens and earth were finished and all 
their hosts. And on the seventh day God had fin- 
ished His work which He had made, and He rested 
on the seventh day from all His work which He had 
made. And God blessed the seventh day and hal- 
lowed it, because He rested thereon from all His 
work which God had created and made. Blessed be 
Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who 
creates the fruit of the vine. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, Who has sanctified us by His command- 
ments, and has taken pleasure in us, and in love and 
favor has given us His holy Sabbath as an inherit- 
ance, a memorial of the creation, that day being also 
the first of the holy convocations in remembrance of 
the departure from Egypt, for Thou hast chosen us, 
and sanctified us above all nations and in love and 
favor hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an inherit- 
ance. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who hallows the 
Sabbath." 

Having concluded his benedictions the 
precentor does not drink from the cup, but 



The Sabbath Service 69 

places the cup upon the reading desk to be 
handed around among the boys attending 
the services. The sanctification of the day 
with wine takes place on the eve of all 
sacred days except on fast days in congre- 
gations where the sanctification (Kiddush) 
has become a fixed institution. Although 
according to the Talmud 1 the " Kiddush" 
belonged to the evening meal in the home, 
mwD DlpDl vhx BTPp p« the institution found 
its way into the public devotion of the 
synagogue. According to the teachers of 
the third century the synagogue was the 
lodging place for strangers. For this pur- 
pose separate apartments were fitted up. 
In order to sanctify the day with the proper 
joy, " for it is the wine which rejoiceth the 
heart of man," the Kiddush was instituted 
at the close of the evening service, more 
especially since wine was no doubt not 
served at the free meals with which stran- 
gers were supplied. Although the syna- 

1 Pesachim 101, a. 



jo The Sabbath Service 

gogue is no longer devoted to giving 
strangers lodging, the Kiddush has never- 
theless been retained in many synagogues. 
As the Sabbath is welcomed with a spe- 
cial institution in the synagogue, so it is 
concluded after sun-set, upon the appear- 
ance of three stars on the horizon. This 
concluding institution has the name " Hab- 
dalah," separation, distinction. The " Hab- 
dalah; " has been preserved in all syna- 
gogues, the members of which believe in 
strict adherence to the Sabbath law as laid 
down by the Rabbis. It is the signal to the 
worshipper that he may again attend to 
work as indicated in the Rabbinical maxim, 
bmw DTip wan nwvw mvh )b iidn 

" Man is forbidden to attend to his needs until he 
has conformed to the ' Habdalah.' " 2 

Originally the " Habdalah " consisted of 
the interpolation of a special benediction in 
the body of the evening service, but later 
its present form was added. The " Hab- 
dalah " is conducted as follows : Wine is 

2 Sabbath 150, a. 



The Sabbath Service 71 

poured into a goblet until it overflows into 
the saucer beneath. The goblet is then 
lifted up by the precentor with his right 
hand. At the same time he holds in his 
left hand a box containing sweet smelling 
spices, while the sexton or some young 
boy in attendance at the services holds a 
burning taper. The reader begins the cere- 
mony by intoning the words : 

" Behold, God is my salvation. I will trust and 
not be afraid, for the Lord, Yah, is my strength and 
my song. He is also become my salvation, and ye 
shall draw water with joy from the fountains of 
salvation. Salvation is with the Lord. May Thy 
blessing be on Thy people. Selah. The Lord of 
Hosts is with us. The God of Jacob is our refuge. 
Selah. The Jews were once favored with delight 
and joy, gladness and honor. Thus may it also 
be with us. I will take the cup of salvation and 
call upon the name of the Lord." 

Hereupon follows the benediction over 
the goblet of wine : 

" Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine." 

Putting down again the goblet the pre- 
centor recites the benediction over the 
spices. It reads : 



72. The Sabbath Service 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who creates diverse species of spices." 

Opening the box and inhaling some of 
the fragrance the precentor proceeds to the 
blessing over the light. He holds his hand 
over the burning taper and says : 

" Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our Godv King of the 
Universe, who creates the light of the fire." 

Taking the burning taper from him who 
has held it, the precentor extinguishes it 
with the wine, which is in the saucer, and 
while doing so says : 

" Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has made a distinction between things 
sacred and profane, between light and darkness, be- 
tween Israel and other nations, between the seventh 
day and the six days of labor. Blessed art Thou, 
O Lord, who has made a distinction between things 
sacred and profane." 

The various elements of the Habdalah 
are not without their symbolical signifi- 
cance. The principal meal of the day was 
taken after sundown. Light and burning 
incense marked its special character. These 
could not be procured on the Sabbath, on 
which the use of fire was prohibited in the 



The Sabbath Service 73 

words : " Ye shall not kindle a fire in your 
dwellings," 3 and had to be enjoyed, there- 
fore, upon the conclusion of the Sabbath. 
To-day the spice, the substitute for the in- 
cense, is according to some teachers made 
to stand for the pleasure which the Sabbath 
brings, and the light is to remind one of 
God's creation on the first day, to which the 
approaching day of the week corresponds. 
The overflowing of the cup with wine is 
symbolical of the dispensation of God's un- 
bounded grace for which the Jew hopes. 
The placing of the hands over the light by 
the precentor, when he reaches the words 
" Between light and darkness," is simply 
to illustrate the words by showing the light 
inside of the hands and the shadow outside 
of them. 

The Habdalah is also celebrated at the 
conclusion of holidays, but with this differ- 
ence, that the blessing of God as Creator of 
the light is omitted, since on holidays, ex- 

3 Ex. 35:3. 



74 The Sabbath Service 

cepting the Day of Atonement, fire could 
be handled. On the night of the Day of 
Atonement the blessing over the spices is 
omitted in the Habdalah, unless the Day of 
Atonement happens to occur on a Sabbath, 
in which case all four blessings are recited. 
The Habdalah undergoes a change also if 
the Sabbath is followed by the ninth day of 
Ab, a fast day in commemoration of the de- 
struction of Jerusalem. In this event only 
the blessing over the light is pronounced 
on Saturday night, that of the spices is 
omitted, and the remaining two blessings 
are recited Sunday after the fast. 

The goblets used, both in the sanctifica- 
tion and the conclusion of the Sabbath, are 
of different material and of various designs, 
a more costly one always being used for the 
sanctification. The goblets are in the shape 
of either cups or tumblers. If the goblet is 
of silver, it is as a rule handsomely engraved 
with Hebrew characters. 

The spice boxes used at the conclusion 
of the Sabbath also differ, both in material 



The Sabbath Service 75 

and design. A popular box is one made of 
cedar wood said to be imported from the 
Lebanon. Boxes of this kind are usually 
inscribed with the Hebrew for " Jerusa- 
lem." If the box consists of silver it is usu- 
ally in the form of a tower with a silver flag- 
flying on the top. Spice boxes range in size 
from three to twelve inches. The collec- 
tion of Jewish ceremonial objects at the 
Smithsonian Institution at the United 
States National Museum in Washington 
contains a spice bottle made of china with 
its neck in oxidized silver. The taper is 
always of pure wax. It consists either of 
one piece or three pieces twisted together. 
It is used either with or without a candle- 
stick, but mostly without one. It must be 
kindled by none but the observing Jew, 
who is forbidden to touch fire on the Sab- 
bath. Outside of these two institutions 
there are no others marking the services on 
the Sabbath in the synagogue. We shall 
now treat the institutions marking the pub- 
lic services on holy days and festive seasons. 



CHAPTER IV 

Passover, Pentecost and the Fasts. 

The ceremonial institutions marking the 
observance of Jewish holidays in the syna- 
gogue proper constitute the subject matter 
of this and the next chapter. The occasion 
engaging our attention first is " Pesach," 
Passover, as it is the first festival celebrated 
in the order of the Jewish calendar months. 
Before proceeding to a description of its 
peculiar public observances, a word on the 
Jewish religious calendar is not only in or- 
der, but necessary. I call it religious, be- 
cause in matters non-religious, or secular, 
that mode of reckoning obtains among 
Jews, which their non-Jewish nei-ghbors fol- 
low. 

The Jewish calendar is the lunar calen- 
dar. Every month consists of either 29 or 
30 days, and is regulated by the revolution 
of the moon around the earth. New moon 
always indicates the beginning of the new 



78 Passover, Pentecost 

month. The ordinary year consists of 
twelve lunar months, 353, 354, or 355 days 
in all. Noting from this difference between 
the lunar year and the solar year of 365 
days, that in a very short time holidays 
would be shifted very far from their ap- 
pointed season, the question arises, in what 
way is this difficulty offset? Seven times in 
every cycle of 19 years, as in the Metonic 
calendar, provision is made for a leap year, 
by the addition of a thirteenth month. The 
leap years are the third, sixth, eighth, elev- 
enth, fourteenth, seventeenth and nine- 
teenth of every cycle of nineteen years. The 
names of the months, which are of Baby- 
lonian origin, a fact the Talmud endorses, 
are Nisan, Iyar, Sivan, Tammuz, Ab, Ellul, 
Tishri, Heshvan, Kislev, Tebeth, Shebat, 
Adar, and the name of the thirteenth month 
in case of leap year is Adar Sheni, second 
Adar. The first month, Nisan, occurs in 
spring and begins in either March or April. 
Nisan is made the first month because in 
this month the exode from Egypt, marking 



And the Fasts 79 

the beginning of Israel's national life, took 
place. The Jewish calendar is so arranged 
that the first day of the seventh month, 
Tishri, cannot fall on Sunday, Wednesday 
or Friday (in order to prevent the Day of 
Atonement from occurring on Friday or 
Sunday, as the preparation of food is for- 
bidden on the Sabbath), and to prevent the 
last day of the Feast of Booths from hap- 
pening on Saturday. Whenever the begin- 
ning of Tishri threatens to fall on Sunday, 
Wednesday or Friday a day is added to the 
passing year and taken from the immedi- 
ately • following one. 

In the earliest times great difficulty at- 
tached to the observance of holidays on the 
same day by all Jews, but the difficulty was 
easily met. The new moon had to be pro- 
claimed by the Synhedrin. As soon as two 
witnesses testified before this august body 
to the appearance of the new moon and 
their testimony was found to be based on 
fact, the people living in Palestine, Syria 
and Babylonia were notified of the new 



80 Passover, Pentecost 

moon, either by messengers or fire signals 
given on top of hills. If no witnesses were 
found to testify, the day on which the new 
moon was expected was added to the pre- 
ceding month. The celebration of festivals 
depended altogether upon the proclamation 
of the new moon by the Synhedrin. There 
were, however, communities, whom word 
could not reach in time for the observance 
of the month's beginning, which was cele- 
brated as a half holiday. In order to effect 
simultaneity of observance among all Jews, 
those living too far from the seat of the 
Synhedrin, to be informed in time, cele- 
brated not only two days, as the beginning 
of the month, namely, the last day of the 
passing month and the first day of the com- 
ing month, but also two days of the festive 
seasons, on which, according to scriptures, a 
holy convocation was ordered. Rosh Has- 
hannah (the first day of the 7th month, the 
day of Memorial) was observed even by Pal- 
estinean Jews for two days, while the Day 
of Atonement was observed everywhere for 



And the Fasts 8i 

only one day, owing to the strain which 
fasting produced on the human body. In 
the great majority of congregations the 
celebration of holidays for two days is still 
continued, although unnecessary since the 
formation of an exact calendar. Jews have 
been in possession of a correctly computed 
calendar since the middle of the fourth cen- 
tury, the work of Hillel II, or Hillel the 
younger, as he is commonly called. 

In order not to neglect the observance of 
days commanded by Jewish law every mem- 
ber of the synagogue, as a rule, provides 
himself with a calendar every year. The 
Hebrew equivalent for calendar is 
" Luach," which originally denotes " table " 
or "tablet." These calendars contain not 
only the Hebrew dates and the correspond- 
ing secular dates, but also indicate festivals 
and holy seasons, and the sections read 
from the scrolls in the synagogue on the 
various Sabbaths of the year. 

But to return to (Pesach) Passover ! It is 
the holiday celebrated from the eve of the 



82 Passover, Pentecost 

15th of Nisan (either March or April) for 
seven days among some Jews, and for eight 
among most of them, in commemoration of 
the deliverance of ancient Israel from 
Egyptian slavery. It is known by the name 
of " Feast of unleavened bread," because of 
the absence of all leaven from Jewish homes 
and the use of only the unleavened as en- 
joined in Exodus 12: 15; 13: 7; and other 
passages. Only the first and seventh days 
are according to Scriptures holy convoca- 
tions, while the rest are half holidays, al- 
though, as indicated in the discussion of the 
Jewish calendar, the second and the addi- 
tional eighth days are dignified as full holi- 
days. According to the Shulchan Aruch, 
the work of Joseph Caro, referred to before, 
no mourning addresses are to be delivered 
during the whole month of Nisan, on ac- 
count of the joy which should mark the 
celebration of Israel's liberation from slav- 
ery. All fasting was also interdicted, with 
the exception of the fast enjoined upon the 
first born males on the day preceding Pass- 



And the Fasts 83 

over, in commemoration of the fact, that 
the first born Israelites were spared the 
10th plague which befell Egypt. If the 
eve of Passover happens to fall on Satur- 
day the first born fasts on Thursday pre- 
ceding. 

Passover is more of a family feast, if the 
number of ceremonial institutions deter- 
mines its character. In the synagogue 
proper there are very few special features 
to be observed in addition to the reading 
of psalms of thanksgiving and glorification, 
which are incorporated into the regular 
service or take the place of a part of it. 
During the forenoon, or additional service, 
of the first day of Passover, which follows 
immediately upon the return of the scrolls 
to the ark, the prayer for rain recited during 
the entire autumn and winter, beginning 
with the " feast of assembly " to be spoken 
of later, is discontinued, and the prayer for 
dew is inserted in its place. The reading of 
these prayers is, as may be readily seen, 
based altogether upon Palestinean climatic 



84 Passover, Pentecost 

conditions, and hardly upon conditions ob- 
taining in other countries. 

A custom worthy of note, which is begun 
immediately after the evening service on 
the eve of the second day of Passover, and 
continued until the Feast of Weeks, name- 
ly for 50 days, is the counting of the Omer. 
An Omer is a measure about the size of a 
half of a gallon. It contained the first fruit 
brought by the ancient Israelites as an of- 
fering to the priest, when as pilgrims, they 
came to Jerusalem on this day. The in- 
stitution of counting is based on the follow- 
ing: 

"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow, 
after the Sabbath, from the day that ye brought the 
sheaf of the wave offering, seven Sabbaths shall ye 
complete; even unto the morrow, after the seventh 
Sabbath, shall ye number fifty days." * 

The counting is preceded by a blessing, 
which reads : 

" Blessed art Thou . . . Who hast sanctified us 
by Thy commandments, and hast commanded us to 
count the days of the Omer." 

1 Lev. 23: 15, 16. 



And the Fasts 85 

The manner of counting is as follows : 
" This day is the day since the Omer." 

After seven days the number of weeks 
in the Omer is also specified. The days of 
counting are called the " Sefirah." Dur- 
ing this time Jews do not marry or give 
banquets, as it is a season replete with sad 
memories. Massacres of Jews took place 
at this time during both the reign of the 
Emperor Hadrian and the Crusades. The 
33rd day of the Omer, the 18th of Iyar, is 
however, excepted. Joyous occasions may 
be celebrated at this time, as according to 
tradition a plague which raged among the 
disciples of Rabbi Akibah (135 B. C), was 
on that day stayed. In some congrega- 
tions a tablet is suspended from the wall 
of the synagogue indicating the exact day 
of the Omer season. 

Before closing the subject of Passover it 
should be stated that on it the " Song of 
Songs " is read, owing to the verse : " Be- 
hold the winter is gone." 2 

2 Can. 2: 15. 



86 Passover, Pentecost 

This verse calls attention to the passing 
of winter, and the book of Canticles, as a 
whole, is a love song fittingly commemo- 
rating the betrothal of Israel to God. 

On the 6th day of the 3rd month, called 
Sivan, falling either in May or June, Jews 
celebrate a feast, which according to Deut- 
eronomy s is called " Feast of Weeks," be- 
cause occurring at the expiration of seven 
full weeks after the second day of Passover. 
In Lev. 23: 16 it is identified with the 50th 
day of the counting of the Omer. It is 
according to Ex. 23: 16, the Feast of the 
early harvest gathered in Palestine, on 
which day the offering of the first fruit had 
to be brought to Jerusalem. This custom 
of bringing the offering of the first fruit 
has been replaced in the synagogue by dec- 
orating the Jewish house of worship with 
trees, plants, and flowers. The Feast of 
Weeks is known also by the name of "Day 
of the Giving of the Law," because of an 
existing tradition to the effect that the rev- 

3 Deut. 16: 10. 



And the Fasts 87 

elation of God's word to Israel at Mount 
Sinai took place on the 6th day of the 3rd 
month. Often termed the marriage anni- 
versary of Israel to God, a great portion of 
the modern European and American Syn- 
agogue has selected this day as the time, 
on which young men and women are con- 
firmed, or formally accepted as active mem- 
bers of their faith. In addition to selected 
holiday prayers and chants the day is not 
celebrated by distinct ceremonies. The 
Biblical scroll read on this festival is the 
book of Ruth, because it tells of Ruth's 
acceptance of the true faith and the harvest 
of the first fruits in the fields of Boaz. 

In many congregations, the night pre- 
ceding the Feast of Weeks is observed in 
the school rooms of the synagogue by a 
watch, during which, passages from the 
scriptures and Talmudical books are re- 
cited. This institution has its origin in 
the three days' preparation which was en- 
joined upon ancient Israel. 4 A similar 

4 Ex. ig: 10-12. 



88 Passover, Pentecost 

watch is held the 7th night of the Feast of 
Tabernacles, to be explained later. The 
watch in most cases includes a repast. Dur- 
ing the middle ages the Feast of Weeks 
was the occasion, on which every male child 
at 5 years of age and at a later age, if phy- 
sically weak, was introduced to school life. 
He was given his first lesson in Hebrew, 
and in the synagogue was offered the op- 
portunity of hearing the ten command- 
ments read from the scroll, which consti- 
tutes a part of the day's scriptural section. 5 
On the 17th of the fourth month, Tam- 
muz, a fast day is observed in the syna- 
gogues, conforming to Rabbinical law, in 
commemoration of the breach made in the 
wall of Jerusalem, and another fast on the 
9th of the fifth month, Ab, in memory of 
the destruction of both the first and second 
Temples. During the three weeks inter- 
vening between these two fasts, many Jews 
abstain from pleasure and the use of meat 

5 Jewish Life in Middle Ages, p. 348. 



And the Fasts 89 

in their diet. Some impose this restriction 
upon themselves only during the ten days 
immediately preceding the 9th of Ab. The 
fast of Tammuz, like all other fasts, except 
the Day of Atonement, commences at day- 
break, but the fast of Ab lasts, like the Day 
of Atonement, for twenty-four hours, from 
evening until evening. The restrictions, 
which the Jew puts on himself, are endured 
as a mark of his mourning over the down- 
fall of the holy city. These two fasts are 
ignored in a number of synagogues, be- 
cause their constituents view the downfall 
of Jerusalem as an opportunity given to 
Israel to fulfil its mission, although the 
memory of Jerusalem is cherished by all 
Jews. During the day of these two fasts 
various elegies are recited. On the fast of 
Ab, the book of Lamentations is the scroll 
designated for reading in the synagogue. 

We may here mention some of the other 
fasts, observed by a great many Jews, and 
the reasons for their celebration. They are 
the Fast of Gedaliah on the third day of the 



90 Passover, Pentecost and Fasts 

seventh month, Tishri (celebrated on ac- 
count of the murder of Gedaliah, Governor 
of Jerusalem); the Fast of Tebeth, on the 
tenth day of the tenth month, Tebeth (in 
memory of the commencement of the siege 
of Jerusalem); and the Fast of Esther, on 
the thirteenth day of the twelfth month, 
Adar, or in case of leap year the thirteenth 
day of the thirteenth month, Adar Sheni 
(in commemoration of the contemplated 
slaughter of the Jews of Persia). 



CHAPTER V 

The Tishri Holidays and the Half 
Holidays 

We now approach the study of the most 
important days for modern Jews. They are 
those from the first to the tenth day of the 
seventh month, Tishri. Taken together 
they are known as " Yamim Noraim," sol- 
emn days, and " Asereth Y'me Teshubah," 
ten days of Penitence. Their purpose is to 
prompt the Jew to self-examination and to 
reconciliation with God. The first of these 
days is called " Rosh Hashannah," New 
Year — a name the Biblical writers do not 
know. In the Bible x it is termed " Yom 
Teruah," day of blowing the alarm, and 
" Sichron Teruah," memorial of blowing 
the alarm. The terms " Day of Memorial " 
and " Day of Judgment " are also applied 
to this day. It is not our purpose here to 

1 Numb. 29: 1. 



92 The Tishri Holidays 

explain how the first of the seventh month 
instead of the first day of the first month 
served as the beginning of the New Year. 
Suffice it to say, that the first of Tishri was 
in many respects the commencement of the 
year. In this month the Jubilee year be- 
gan, slaves were emancipated and landed 
property reverted to its original owner. 

The most prominent feature in the pub- 
lic devotion of the synagogue consists of 
the blowing of the ram's horn. Long before 
the arrival of the festival its notes are 
heard. The whole of the preceding month 
(Ellul) is regarded a month of preparation. 
" Selichoth," special prayers for forgiveness 
of sin and the blowing of the Shofar mark 
the preparation. This month of prepara- 
tion takes its character from a well-known 
tradition. It is reported, that on the first 
of Ellul Moses ascended Mt. Sinai for the 
third time and returned on the tenth of 
Tishri, with the assurance of God's pardon 
to Israel. While in Biblical times the Sho- 
far was used for all sorts of announcements, 



And the Half Holidays 93 

like that of New Moon and festivals, the 
year of release, the call to battle, as signal 
of victory, and as an instrument in proces- 
sions, its purpose on this holiday is to rouse 
Jews to the serious contemplation of their 
sinfulness and their duty to lead a godly 
life. Saadya, a teacher of the tenth cen- 
tury, holds, that the Shofar reminds Jews of 
the creation, their duty to God, the revela- 
tion on Mt. Sinai, the teachings of the 
prophets, the destruction of the Temple, 
the binding of Isaac as a sacrifice, immi- 
nent danger, the Day of Judgment, the re- 
demption of Israel, and the resurrection. 

The Shofar is made of a ram's horn, flat- 
tened by heat. It is always crooked and is 
finished with a mouth-piece. It is abso- 
lutely devoid of all decorations. 

The Shofar is blown for the first time on 
New Year before the scrolls are returned to 
the ark and is preceded by the following 
benedictions: 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has sanctified us with His command- 



94 The Tishri Holidays 

ments, and commanded us to hear the sound of the 
Shofar. 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has kept us alive, sustained us and 
caused us to enjoy this season." 

There are four kinds of sounds produced 
by the Shofar: 

(a) Tekiah — the unbroken sound. 

(b) Shebarim — the broken sound. 

(c) Teruah — the wave-like sound. 

(d) The long Tekiah — the prolonged 
unbroken sound. 

These four sounds are arranged in three 
sets of blasts. 

The first is Tekiah, Shebarim, Teruah; 
sounded three times in succession. 

The second is Tekiah, Shebarim, Tekiah; 
also sounded three times in succession. 

The third is Tekiah, Teruah, Tekiah; 
sounded three times, with this exception, 
that the last Tekiah is the prolonged Te- 
kiah. 

After every set of blasts a pause follows, 
during which devotional reflections are re- 
cited. The first of these sets of blasts is di- 



Different Sizes of Shofar (Ram's Horn) 



And the Half Holidays 95 

rected to the angel Sharshia, the second to 
the angel Thartiel, and after the third set all 
angels are implored to help worshippers to 
become thoroughly imbued with the mean- 
ing of the Shofar's sounds. 

In the Mussaf services, the service fol- 
lowing the return of the scrolls to the ark, 
there are again three sets of blasts with 
prayers intervening between the first and 
second, and the second and third sets of 
blasts. If the first day of the New Year 
occurs on the Sabbath the Shofar is not 
sounded, owing to the labor it entails, and 
the blowing takes place on the second day 
only. In some congregations, where New 
Year is celebrated for one day only, the 
ritual, provides for the blowing of the Sho- 
far, even on Sabbath. 2 

The person blowing the Shofar must per- 
form this service standing on the bema of 
the synagogue. The Shofar when blown is 
held in the right hand, with the opening, 
from which the sound issues, turned up- 

2 Szold-Jastrow Ritual. 



g6 The Tishri Holidays 

ward. In addition to the month of Ellul 
and New Year, the Shofar is sounded at 
the close of the Day of Atonement. Among 
the Portuguese Jews it is then sounded four 
times, and among others but once. And 
finally it is sounded on the seventh day of 
the Feast of Tabernacles, at each of the 
seven circuits made around the synagogue. 

One word more about the Jewish New 
Year. On New Year, as well as on the sub- 
sequent holy day, the worshippers, in the 
most conservative synagogues, wear their 
burial shrouds as an incentive to sincere re- 
pentance, for it helps to remind people of 
the uncertainty of life. 

In addition to fasting, the special confes- 
sions of guilt, and the petitions for forgive- 
ness, there is but one peculiar ceremonial 
institution marking the observance of the 
Day of Atonement. The institution re- 
ferred to consists of the kindling of a large 
wax taper by every member of the congre- 
gation near the bema of the synagogue in 
memory of departed dear ones. The taper 



And the Half Holidays 97 

is always large enough to burn the entire 
twenty-four hours of the fast. The reason 
for the kindling of the taper lies in the com- 
parison the Bible makes between the soul 
of man, in the immortality of which the Jew 
believes, and a lamp or light. 

We now proceed to the consideration of 
the Feast of Booths occurring on the fif- 
teenth day of the seventh month, Tishri. It 
is observed for seven days, the first day 
alone being a holy convocation, while the 
remaining six days are half holidays. It is 
instituted in memory of the dwelling of the 
children of Israel in booths when they jour- 
neyed through the wilderness. 3 Being a 
harvest festival, it is observed in the syna- 
gogue by songs of praise, the decoration of 
the synagogue with plants and fruits, and 
more especially by the use of " the palm 
branch," " Lulab " and the "citron," " Eth- 
rog." The preparation of the palm branch 
is based on the passage : 

3 Lev. 23: 43. 

7 



98 The Tishri Holidays 

" And ye shall take unto you on the first day the 
fruit of the goodly tree, branches of palm trees, and 
boughs of thick leaved trees, and willows of the 
brook, and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God 
seven days." 4 

The palm branch is decorated at the low- 
er part with myrtle branches, and branches 
of the willow, attached to the palm branch 
by means of leaves of the palm tree. When 
the palm branch and citron are picked up 
the benediction recited is : 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has sanctified us with His command- 
ments and commanded us the use of the palm 
branch." 

On the first day is added the benediction, 
in which God is thanked for having spared 
the worshipper to enjoy this season. Not 
only the precentor but many a layman is 
provided with a lulab and ethrog. The palm 
branch and the citron are lifted up before 
the view of the congregation, during the 
psalms of praise in the service and during 
the recitation of a prayer for God's redemp- 

4 Lev. 23 : 40. 




1 Palm Branch 



2 Citron Receptacle (Silver) 



And the Half Holidays 99 

tion, taking place while a circuit is made 
around the synagogue. On Sabbath the 
lulab is not taken up, as the carrying of it is 
regarded a form of work, desecrating the 
sanctity of the day. The Karaites do not 
give the lulab a place in the synagogal ser- 
vice, but believe that it is to be used in the 
building of the " Succah," Booth. 

In some synagogues a booth is erected, 
similar to that met in the Jewish home. We 
shall not speak of the booth in this connec- 
tion, as its discussion has its proper place 
among the ceremonial institutions, charac- 
terizing the Jewish home, to be taken up 
later. 

The last day of the Feast of Booths is 
called " Hashaana Rabba," because on this 
day numerous petitions for the salvation of 
Israel are recited. While these petitions are 
intoned, the worshippers make seven cir- 
cuits around the auditorium of the syna- 
gogue. Among Portuguese Jews the Sho- 
far is sounded on this day, as if to give 

those, who have not become thoroughly 
LofC. 



ioo The Tishri Holidays 

reconciled with God on the Atonement Day, 
a last opportunity of repentance, before the 
final judgment of God is sealed. It is on 
the eve of this festival that a watch takes 
place, similar to the one held on the eve of 
the Feast of Weeks. 

On " Shemini Atzereth," the Feast of As- 
sembly, celebrated on the 226. day of the 
seventh month, Tishri, no special ceremo- 
nial institution, except the reading of the 
scroll of Ecclesiastes, marks the public ser- 
vice. The day following, however, the 23d 
day of the seventh month, known as " Sim- 
chath Torab," " Feast of Rejoicing Over the 
Law," is characterized by an elaborate insti- 
tution. The feast is post-Biblical in origin 
and was not a fixed institution until the an- 
nual cycle of Pentateuchal reading from the 
scrolls was firmly established. As has been 
mentioned in the first chapter, the last sec- 
tion of Deuteronomy is read on this day 
from one scroll and the first section of Gen- 
esis from another. The privileges of recit- 
ing the customary benedictions over the 



And the Half Holidays ioi 

last sub-section, read from the first scroll, 
and over the first sub-section, read from the 
second, are prized as precious privileges 
and hence eagerly sought. The two per- 
sons who procure these privileges, often at 
the expense of rich offerings to the congre- 
gational treasury, are respectively titled 
" Chasan Torah," Bridegroom of the Law, 
and " Chasan Bereshith," Bridegroom of 
Genesis. In many congregations, where 
this day is still observed, these two Bride- 
grooms often tender their fellow worship- 
pers a repast. On the Day of Rejoicing 
Over the Law special inducements are held 
out to the younger members of the congre- 
gation to participate actively in the public 
service. Carrying flags with burning tapers, 
they will, on the eve of the day, join the 
procession made around the synagogue 
with all the scrolls owned by the congrega- 
tion. As the procession moves through the 
auditorium women throw nuts and raisins 
from the galleries on the men and boys 
marching below. While the scrolls are out 



102 The Tishri Holidays 

of the ark a burning taper is usually put 
into it. In some communities it is custom- 
ary to call even young boys, who have not 
yet attained the age of religious majority, 
to the bema to recite the benedictions over 
a sub-section of the Pentateuchal festive 
portion. 

Beginning with the 25th day of the ninth 
month, Kislev, Jews celebrate for eight 
days " Chanukkah," Feast of Dedication, in 
commemoration of the defeat of Antiochus 
Epiphanes and the re-dedication of the 
Temple at Jerusalem by Judas Maccabeus 
(164 B. C). It is called also " Feast of the 
Asmoneans." It is celebrated by kindling 
on every evening of the feast, beginning 
with the eve of the first day, wax tapers or 
lamps. On the eve of the first day one 
light is kindled. The number of lights 
steadily increases until the eighth day is 
reached, the number always corresponding 
to the ordinal number of the day celebrated. 
A separate taper is used for the kindling of 
the lights and bears the name " Shamash," 



And the Half Holidays 103 

servant. In the Talmud there is a discus- 
sion as to whether the number of lights 
should increase or decrease from day to day, 
Hillel believing in the increase and Sham- 
mai in the decrease. For the kindling of 
such tapers every congregation possesses a 
candelabrum made either of burnished brass 
or silver. This ceremony is based on a tra- 
dition, which tells that when the Temple 
was cleansed by Judas Maccabeus of all 
debris, he found a cruse of oil, hermetically 
closed with the high priest's seal, the size of 
which indicated that there would be suffi- 
cient oil in it to last merely for a day, 
whereas it miraculously lasted for eight 
days. On lighting the Chanukkah lights 
the following benedictions are recited : 

" Praised be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has sanctified us with His command- 
ments and has commanded us to kindle the lights of 
Chanukkah." 

" Praised be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who wrought miracles for our fathers in 
days of old at this season." 

On the first night a third benediction, 
consisting of thanks to God for having 



104 The Tishri Holidays 

spared the worshipper in health and life, is 
added. 

After the lighting of the tapers or lamps, 
a hymn of praise is sung, dwelling upon the 
frequent intercession of God's help in the 
time of Israel's early oppression. 

Purim, rendered according to Biblical 
etymology " Feast of Lots," and celebrated 
on the 14th day of the twelfth month, Adar, 
and in case of leap year on the 14th day of 
the thirteenth month, has its public service 
in the synagogue marked by the reading of 
the book of Esther both on the eve and 
morning of the holiday. 

The book of Esther is not read on this 
occasion from an ordinary text of the Old 
Testament, but from a parchment scroll, 
which is called " Megillah," the scroll. 

The Megillah must be carefully written 
on the skin of a clean animal, by a Jewish 
Scribe, with good ink, and not printed, al- 
though printed copies are in existence and 
are used by members of the congregation, 
while following the reading of the precen- 




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And the Half Holidays 105 

tor, who invariably has before him a parch- 
ment scroll. The names of the Sons of 
Haman must be written on separate lines, 
one below the other. 

The book of Esther is chanted in a mel- 
ody unlike that characterizing the reading 
of the scrolls of the law or the selections 
from the prophets. The recitation of Esther 
by heart is forbidden, however well ac- 
quainted the precentor may be with the 
book. The precentor is compelled to have 
the text before him. While everybody is 
in duty bound to read the book of Esther 
for himself, persons not understanding He- 
brew are considered as having performed 
their obligation, if they simply listen to its 
reading. Before the reading of the book of 
Esther, these blessings are recited : 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has sanctified us by His command- 
ments, and has commanded us to read the Megillah." 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has wrought miracles for our fathers 
in days of old." 

On the eve of Purim every worshipper 



106 The Tishri Holidays 

puts his contribution toward charity into a 
plate or basket placed into the synagogue 
for collection. The money thus procured is 
in some communities given to the precen- 
tor as a remuneration for his reading. Both 
Chanukkah and Purim are in many syna- 
gogues made festivals for young people, 
and hence are celebrated by the presenta- 
tion of plays, dealing with the facts of the 
Chanukkah and Purim stories. 

Such are in the main the ceremonial insti- 
tutions, which we may observe during the 
public devotion in the synagogue on the 
different occasions of the year. 



CHAPTER VI 

Customs in the Home 

The Jewish home is permeated by a 
marked religious atmosphere. The injunc- 
tion to speak when sitting in one's house of 
the things God commanded has been put 
into execution almost literally. From the 
time the Jew takes possession of a house he 
expects to make his residence, one ceremo- 
nial institution after another is made to de- 
clare the religion of the occupants. In com- 
pliance with the Biblical passage, " Thou 
shalt write them (the words of the law) 
upon the door posts of thy house and upon 
thy gates," 1 we, as a rule, find, upon the 
upper part of the right post of doors, lead- 
ing into the residence of a Jew, and of doors 
leading into every room of such residence, 
a small wooden, glass, or metal tube vary- 
ing from two to six inches in length. This 

1 Deut. 6: 9. 



108 Customs in the Home 

tube or case is known by the name " Mezu- 
zah," literally " door post," and hence ob- 
ject fixed to door post. It is always attached 
in a slanting position. The tube or case 
contains a small parchment scroll, made of 
the skin of a clean animal. The rules gov- 
erning the writing of the paragraphs in the 
Mezuzah are the same as those to be ob- 
served in the writing of the scrolls and phy- 
lacteries. The passages contained in the 
Mezuzah are : 

" Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is 
one. 

And thou shalt love the Lord, thy God, with all 
thy heart, with all thy soul, and with all thy might. 

And these words which I command thee, this day 
shall be in thy heart. 

And thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy 
children, speaking of them when thou sittest in thy 
house, when thou walkest by the way, when thou 
liest down, and when thou risest up. 

And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thy hand 
and they shall be as frontlets between thine eyes. 

And thou shalt write them upon the posts of the 
house and upon thy gates." * 

The second section reads : 
2 Deut. 6: 4-9. 




1 Mezuzoth 



2 Mezuzah Scroll 



Customs in the Home 109 

" And it shall come to pass if ye shall hearken dili- 
gently unto my commandments, which I command 
you this day, to love the Lord, your God, and to serve 
him with all your heart, and with all your soul, 

That I will give you the rain of your land in its 
due season, the first rain and the latter rain, that thou 
mayest gather in thy corn and thy wine and thine oil. 

And I will send grass in thy fields for thy cattle, 
that thou mayest eat and be satisfied. 

Take heed that your heart be not deceived and ye 
turn aside and serve other gods, and worship them: 

And then the Lord's wrath be kindled against you 
and he shut up the heaven, that there be no rain and 
that the land yield not her fruit, and lest ye perish 
quickly from off the good land which the Lord giv- 
eth you. 

Therefore shall ye lay up these, my words, in your 
heart, and in your soul, and bind them for a sign 
upon your hand that they may be as frontlets between 
your eyes. 

And ye shall teach them to your children, speaking 
of them when thou sittest in thy house, when thou 
walkest by the way, when thou liest down and when 
thou risest up. 

And thou shalt write them upon the door posts of 
thine house and upon thy gates." 3 

After the parchment has been finished, it 

is rolled up and put into the tube or case, 

which has a small opening, revealing the 

word HB> " Almighty," written on the back 

of the parchment. 

3 Deut. 11: 13-20. 



no Customs in the Home 

The Mezuzah must be examined periodi- 
cally in order to ascertain whether it is in 
good condition. If the ink has faded it 
should be replaced by another. When the 
Mezuzah is attached to the door post a 
benediction is recited, praising God for 
having enjoined the law with reference to 
this institution. 

A number of Jews, upon passing through 
a gate-way adorned with a Mezuzah, are in 
the habit of touching the Mezuzah with the 
hand and then kissing the hand, as a mark 
of respect. In the east there are Jewish 
homes which have Mezuzoth containing 
the whole decalogue. A similar custom ob- 
tains among Mohammedans who inscribe 
their doors and windows with passages 
from the Koran. 

The object of the Mezuzah is to remind 
Jews of the need of sanctifying the home by 
means of religious teachings, so as to keep 
it unpolluted from all evil. The Mezuzah 
is undoubtedly an amulet and forcibly re- 
calls the protecting charm possessed by the 



Customs in the Home hi 

door posts of the ancient Israelites in 
Egypt, as we read : 

" And ye shall take a bunch of hyssop and dip it in 
the blood that is in the basin and strike the lintel and 
the two side posts with the blood that is in the basin, 
and none of you shall go out at the door of his house 
until morning, for the Lord will pass through to 
smite the Egyptians; and when He seeth the blood 
upon the lintel and on the two side posts, the Lord 
will pass over the door and will not suffer the de- 
stroyer to come in unto your houses to smite you." 4 

The claim that the Mezuzah is an amulet, 
protecting the occupants of the home 
against harm from evil spirits, is justified by 
the belief in the power of amulets among 
Jews, a great number of whom are known 
to wear them on their persons. The amu- 
let, " Kemea," used among Jews and worn 
by them on their persons for purposes of 
protection against all sorts of misfortune, 
more especially sickness, varies in design. 
A popular form is a piece of parchment with 
a Hebrew inscription. Another form is an 
ornament in the shape of a heart made of 
some metal with " Shaddai," Almighty, in- 

4 Ex. 12: 22-23. 



ii2 Customs in the Home 

scribed on one side and the shield of David 
engraved on the reverse side. In the col- 
lection of objects of Jewish ceremonial in 
the National Museum at Washington there 
are, in addition to the amulets of the char- 
acter already given, a medallion, a silver 
medal, a silver coin, and two silver rings, 
used for this purpose. The importance at- 
tached to amulets may be recognized by 
the permission the Shulchan Aruch grants 
to wear them on the Sabbath, 5 whereas it 
forbids the carrying of other portable 
things on the Sabbath, on account of the 
fact, that carrying is considered a certain 
form of labor. Israel Abrahams tells, that 
betrothal rings inscribed with the words 
" Mazol Tob," good luck, during the mid- 
dle ages was supposed to protect the bride 
against the proverbial " evil eye," while 
in more recent times seal rings were en- 
graved for a similar purpose with the 
name of God. 

5 Orach Chayim 301. 

"Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 182. 



Customs in the Home 113 

In this connection it may be stated that 
Abraham Ibn Ezra denounced amulets, to- 
gether with other superstitions. 

Though different in purpose from the 
Mezuzah, an object found in most Jewish 
homes should be mentioned here. I refer 
to the so-called " Mizrach." It is made 
either of paper, cardboard, silk or velvet, 
and handsomely embroidered. Some house- 
holds own " Mizrachs " which are perfect 
pieces of art. The Mizrach gets its name, 
which means East, from the object it serves. 
When framed, it is usually suspended on the 
eastern wall of the living room of the house, 
in order to indicate the East, the direction, 
in which occupants of the house turn when 
engaged in prayer. The verse usually 
found on the top of the Mizrach is : 

" From the rising of the sun unto its setting 4ie 
name of the Lord is praised." 7 

After the Jewish home is provided with 
Mezuzoth and the family takes possession 

7 Ps. 113: 3. 

8 



H4 Customs in the Home 

of its home, it is usually dedicated formally 
by a religious ceremony, consisting of the 
recitation of passages from the Biblical and 
Talmudical writings. The Biblical portions 
selected for this occasion are Psalms 30; 15; 
101; 121; 127; 128; and 119, verses 9-16, 
153-160, 81-88, 33-40 in the order here 
given. For the purpose of dedication 
some one learned in the law is usually pro- 
cured. 



Sabbath Lamp 



CHAPTER VII 
Sabbath in the Home 

Although attendance at synagogue is ex- 
pected from Jews, on the ground that it has 
a tendency to strengthen the Jewish con- 
sciousness, there are occasions when the 
home is made the scene of divine services. 
These occasions are the mornings and even- 
ings of the week of mourning, " Shibah," 
following the death of some near relative 
(during which time the mourner is expected 
to abstain from the pursuit of his vocation) ; 
the anniversaries of the death of a relative; 
and wedding ceremonies (institutions, the 
details of which will be explained in subse- 
quent chapters). 

As in the discussion of the ceremonial in- 
stitutions in vogue in the synagogue prop- 
er, we followed the holy seasons in their 
chronological order, so we shall follow them 
in chronological order in describing the in- 
stitutions practiced in the home. 



n6 Sabbath in the Home 

Before proceeding to them we shall take 
up the Sabbath. 

The Sabbath among Jews is a day of joy, 
and the ceremonial institutions which mark 
it are therefore all expressive of its joyous 
character. While the head of the family is 
at the synagogue, welcoming in the public 
devotion the day of rest, the wife and 
mother, or in the case of her absence, the 
oldest female member of the home, decks 
the table in the dining room with a white 
cloth and places upon it two candlesticks, 
each of which contains a wax or tallow 
taper, kindled by her just before sundown, 
while reciting the benediction : 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who has commanded us to kindle the Sab- 
bath lights." 

On the eve of festivals, when the same 
ceremony is observed, the word " festival " 
is substituted for the word " Sabbath " in 
the benediction. 

The candlesticks are either of burnished 
brass or silver. In some instances a can- 




Candlesticks and Candelabra 



Sabbath in the Home 117 

delabrum is used in place of the candlesticks, 
and in a number of cases homes are pro- 
vided with Sabbath lamps, supplied with 
seven brackets for lights, and suspended 
from the ceiling of the living room. 

In addition to the Sabbath lights, two 
loaves of bread, called " Birchoth," because 
symbols of God's blessing, the double por- 
tion of manna with which ancient Israel was 
provided on Friday, 1 are placed on the table 
directly in front of the seat to be occupied 
by the head of the family during the even- 
ing meal. These birchoth are usually baked 
at the home by the housewife, who is in 
duty bound to take the " Challah " (corre- 
sponding to the first part of the dough to 
be given to the priest), 2 which she places into 
the stove to be burnt. This act is also ac- 
companied by a benediction, in which God 
is blessed for commanding the separation 
of the Challah. 

When the husband and father retarns 
from the synagogue his children gather 

1 Ex. 16: 22. 2 Numb. 15: 17-21. 



n8 Sabbath in the Home 

about him, according to age, and he in- 
vokes upon their heads a benediction. On 
the heads of boys he pronounces the words, 
" May God make thee like Ephraim and 
Manasseh," and on the heads of the girls, 
" May God make thee like Sarah, Rebec- 
cah, Rachel and Leah," concluding in both 
cases with the three-fold priestly benedic- 
tion, " The Lord bless thee and preserve 
thee, the Lord make his countenance to 
shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee; 
the Lord lift up His countenance toward 
thee and give thee peace." 

Then follows the recitation of the Prov- 
erbs 31 : 10-31, by the father, in which the 
qualities of the virtuous woman are ex- 
tolled, in honor of the female head of the 
house. Washing his hands (a custom en- 
joined before every service, especially be- 
fore the one about to take place, because 
the table corresponds to the altar which de- 
mands the purity of the priest), the husband 
proceeds to the sanctification of the Sab- 
bath, the Kiddush, in the manner in which 



Sabbath in the Home 119 

this ceremony took place in the synagogue, 
and as described in a previous chapter. 
When the blessing has been recited over the 
wine, the goblet is passed to every member 
of the family, according to age, each one of 
whom takes a sip. Then follows the bene- 
diction over the loaves of bread, which 
reads: 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, Who brings bread out of the earth." 

One of the loaves is cut and each person 
at the table receives a small piece called 
the " Motzie," i. e., a part of the loaf over 
which a blessing has been pronounced. 
After supper follow the grace after meals, 
and hymns of praise which are known as 
" Zemiroth " (psalms). 

The lights in many Jewish homes are ex- 
tinguished and the fires raked by a non-Jew, 
engaged for this purpose, as Jews are for- 
bidden to touch fire in any form by the Rab- 
binical interpretation of a Scriptural pas- 
sage/ 

3 Ex. 35: 3. 



120 Sabbath in the Home 

The same ceremony of breaking bread 
and blessing the wine is observed on the 
eve of holidays with some slight modifica- 
tion, always suggested by the peculiar char- 
acter of the day celebrated. At the noon 
meal of the Sabbath and holidays the bless- 
ing is recited only over loaves of bread. 
The loaves, until cut, are always covered by 
a cloth, handsomely embroidered, and re- 
served for this purpose. The noon meal is 
also followed by songs of praise, as is the 
meal on the eve of the previous day. The 
" Habdalah " (distinction), celebrated in the 
home at the close of the Sabbath, differs 
somewhat from its observance in the public 
devotion of the synagogue. The male mem- 
bers of the family drink the wine, while all 
members of the family inhale the fragrance 
of the spices. In place of wine, if wine can- 
not be procured, beer or milk may be used. 
If there is no male head to the family, moth- 
ers sanctify, with Kiddush, and close, with 
Habdalah, the Sabbath in the home. 



CHAPTER VIII 

The Festivals in the Home 

The holiday marked by elaborate cere- 
monial institutions in the home is Pass- 
over. Preparations are made for putting 
the home into holiday attire long before 
the arrival of the feast. For weeks some- 
times housewives are busy removing the 
leaven out of the various apartments of 
their dwellings. When the house has been 
thoroughly cleansed the head of the family 
will, on the eve of the day preceding Pass- 
over, make a search in his house for leaven, 
gathering up everything of this kind and 
blessing God for having enjoined this cus- 
tom as a religious duty. He then states, that 
all the leaven which has escaped his notice 
shall not be accounted as such, but as the 
dust of the earth. About ten o'clock on 
the following day, all the leaven gathered 
is burnt. During the afternoon the table is 
set for the Seder, " order," " service," 



122 The Festivals in the Home 

which takes place upon the return of the 
male members of the family from the syna- 
gogue. It is held in memory of Israel's ex- 
ode from Egypt. The table is set as fol- 
lows : 

At the place immediately in front of the 
seat of him, who is to conduct the service, 
a dish is placed, on which are put three un- 
leavened cakes (Matzoth), each one of which 
is covered separately. On the top of them 
are put a roasted egg, a roasted shank bone, 
the " Charoseth " (a mixture of scraped 
apples and almonds), " Moror " (bitter 
herbs, parsley and salt water). That which 
is wanted first is placed nearest to the lead- 
er of the service. Every one of these arti- 
cles is emblematic of some special histori- 
cal idea. The bitter herbs, usually consist- 
ing of horseradish, stand, on account ot 
their pungent taste, for the hard work of 
the Israelites in Egypt. The Charoseth, on 
account of its brown color, is representa- 
tive of the clay, out of which Israelites 
made bricks. The shank bone is the memo- 



The Festivals in the Home 123 

rial of the paschal lamb. And the egg is 
symbolical of the sacrifice brought on each 
day of the festival in the Temple. 

During the service each participant drinks 
four cups of wine especially prepared for 
Passover. These four cups correspond to 
the four expressions of redemption used in 
the Bible, in connection with the story of 
Israel's liberation. The four expressions 
are *nK*in " I have brought forth," *t6m 
" I have redeemed," wvrr " I have deliv- 
ered," WjA " I have taken." * 

In the great majority of families, the 
wine for this occasion is made of raisins. 
During the reading of the service the par- 
ticipants are to recline, expressive of the 
comparative freedom and ease Jews have 
enjoyed since their ancestors' slavery. The 
Passover is a family reunion and often 
brings together members of the same fam- 
ily, living great distances apart. The dish 
containing the necessary articles is usually 

>Ex. 6: 6-7. 



124 The Festivals in the Home 

one designed for the Seder purpose. It is 
made either of earthenware or metal, and 
richly decorated. The cups of wine are of 
silver, provided the means of the family will 
allow the purchase of such. It should be 
stated here that these utensils, as well as all 
others used during the Passover week, are 
never used at any other time of the year. 
When Passover has passed, they are care- 
fully stored away to keep them from all 
contact with either anything leaven, or 
with the dishes used for leavened food. 

The Seder service proceeds in the follow- 
ing order : First comes the sanctification of 
the day, by Kiddush, then the washing of 
the hands, the eating of the parsley, the 
breaking of the middle cake in the dish (a 
part of which is called " Afikomen," kept 
until the following year and burnt with the 
leaven on the eve of the subsequent Pass- 
over). Here follows an invitation to all 
who are needy to come and participate in 
the service. Then are told the stories of 
Israel's slavery, its exode from Egypt, and 




Kiddush Cup (Silver) 




Passover Kiddush Goblet (Silver) 



The Festivals in the Home 125 

its development as a nation. Interspersed 
with these narratives are comments by the 
Rabbis of the early Christian centuries, and 
songs of praise to God. Then follow in the 
order here given the eating of the bitter 
herb, the serving of the evening meal, 
grace, psalms, songs, and special prayers. 

The next festival observed in the home 
by special ceremonial is New Year, and the 
ceremonial customary then is nothing 
more than the exchange of the compli- 
ments of the season. On this occasion rela- 
tives and friends visit one another and meet 
with the greeting, " Shanah Tobah," a 
Happy New Year, to which the person ad- 
dressed responds, nn« dh or ns dj lit. "also 
you," meaning " the same to you." If peo- 
ple find it impossible to see one another in 
person on this day, they exchange cards, 
expressing their good wishes with the in- 
scription : nnsn mito mvh " May you be 
inscribed for a good year," with the phrase, 
" in the book of life " understood. These 
cards differ both in design and elaborate- 



126 The Festivals in the Home 

ness. In some communities it is custom- 
ary to eat honey with bread on the eve of 
the New Year, expressive of the wish, that 
as the bread is sweet, so may the experi- 
ences during the year to come be only the 
most pleasant. 

A feast observed in the home by an in- 
teresting institution is the Feast of Taber- 
nacles, celebrated, as has been stated in one 
of the preceding chapters, in commemora- 
tion of the fact, that the Israelites dwelt in 
booths, while wandering through the wil- 
derness. Because Leviticus 23 : 43 com- 
mands, " In booths shall ye dwell," booths 
are erected in either the yard or on the 
roofs of Jewish homes for this festival. The 
booth has three sides of wood, while the 
fourth side or entrance is covered by a cur- 
tain. The roof consists of leaves and 
branches, closely put together, so that the 
sun may not annoy the family, dining and 
sitting in the booth during the entire week 
of the festival. Everything, which does not 
grow on the earth, is unfit as material for 



The Festivals in the Home 127 

the roof. The sides are usually hung with 
beautiful draperies, while the roof is hung 
with different kinds of fruit. The draperies 
are often old curtains of the ark in the syna- 
gogue. The work of construction begins 
immediately after the Day of Atonement. 
The height of the booth dare not exceed 
twenty cubits, the measurement fixed by 
Rabbinical law. Nor is a booth allowed to 
be narrower than the given size of four 
cubits. Although it is a duty to spend 
one's time in the booth during this holiday, 
some people going even so far as to sleep in 
it, the sick are exempt from this obligation. 
In case of rain, people need not remain in 
the booth, although the Kiddush (sanctifi- 
cation) and the Motzie (breaking of bread), 
on the first night, must take place in it, de- 
spite inclement weather. 

Chanukkah, the Feast of Dedication, ob- 
served in memory of the victories of Judas 
Maccabeus over the Syrians, is celebrated 
in the home, as in the synagogue, by the 
kindling of wax tapers or oil lamps by all 



128 The Festivals in the Home 

male members of the family. In some in- 
stances even the women and girls are per- 
mitted to perform this religious duty. The 
candelabra used for this purpose are not 
always of costly character. They are im- 
provised at times out of wood or even egg 
shells. Because made a feast for children, 
owing to the youthfulness of the hero of the 
Chanukkah story, parents are in the habit of 
delighting the hearts of the little ones with 
presents of all kinds, as Christians are wont 
to do on Christmas. A favorite sport on 
this feast among Jews during the Middle 
Ages, mentioned by Israel Abrahams, was 
the propounding of arithmetical puzzles. 2 
Card playing is on this feast not only per- 
mitted, but actually endorsed by Jewish 
tradition as a means of amusement. A well- 
known game of chance is that played with 
the Trendel (a top), made either of wood 
or metal. According to some the word 
" trendel " is a Judaized term from the Ger- 
man " Drahen," to turn, and according to 

2 Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 385. 



The Festivals in the Home 129 

others from " Trandel," to hesitate. Tren- 
del, according to the latter derivation, 
would be the object, hesitating to decide 
upon what side to fall. The body of the top 
is a^cube, on each of the lateral sides of 
which is found a Hebrew letter. The four 
Hebrew letters are EP'rm the initials of the 
words constituting the sentence D£? nM hill d: 
" a great miracle happened there." In 
playing with the Trendel, each of the differ- 
ent persons engaged in the game puts a 
coin into a common pot. The Trendel is 
spun, and the letter, which comes to view as 
the Trendel falls, indicates the gain or loss 
of the player. The letters are used as 
initials of German words. 2 stands for 
" N," of " Nichts," and indicates that the 
player takes nothing out of the pot. The 
J stands for " G," of " Ganz," and indicates 
that the whole pot belongs to the player, 
n stands for " H," of " Halb," and indicates 
that the player gets half of the pot. B> stands 
for " St," of " Stellen," and indicates that 
the player must put another portion into 



130 The Festivals in the Home 

the pot. This game is not Jewish in origin, 
nor do all Jews play it. It is confined to 
only German-speaking Jews. Stewart Cul- 
in of the University of Pennsylvania, has 
treated it among other games played by 
different nations. 

Purim is celebrated in the home by the 
interchange of presents between different 
families, known as " Shloach Manoth," the 
sending of gifts/ The poor especially are 
remembered with a goodly portion on this 
occasion. On the eve of the festival the 
table in many a home is set with sweets for 
visitors, more especially for masquers, who 
in every community go from home to home 
in large numbers on this holiday. On 
Purim, too, card-playing is freely indulged 
in. These are in the main the institutions 
practiced in the Jewish home worthy of 
note. 

The following chapters will lead us into 
a description of certain general religious 
customs and rites in vogue among Jews. 

3 Esther 9: 22. 



CHAPTER IX 

Circumcision and Redemption of the 
First Born 

In treating of those ceremonial institu- 
tions which are not confined either to the 
synagogue as such, or to the Jewish home, 
let us discuss them in the order, in which 
the Jew may encounter and experience 
them in the course of his life. 

The first one claiming our attention is 
the hoary rite of circumcision. It consists, 
as the etymology of the English term im- 
plies, of the removal of the foreskin from 
the male organ by means of cutting. Its 
Hebrew^ equivalent is " Milan." There is 
perhaps no Jewish institution which has 
been preserved more faithfully and is vio- 
lated less. In whatever particular a Jew 
may prove lax, he will rarely fail to perform 
this act by means of the proper agent ap- 
pointed for this purpose, if a son is born 
to him. The institution has met with gen- 



132 Circumcision and Redemption 

eral conformity, because of the Biblical 
command at first enjoined upon Abraham, 
and later upon the people of Israel. It is 
Abraham, concerning whom it is said : 

" And God said unto Abraham, Thou shalt keep 
my covenant, therefore, thou and thy seed after thee 
in their generations. 

This is my covenant which ye shall keep, between 
me and you, and thy seed after thee ; every man 
child among you shall be circumcised. 

And ye shall circumcise the flesh of your fore- 
skin; and it shall be a token of the covenant betwixt 
me and you. 

And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised 
among you, every man child in your generations. 
He that is born in the house, or bought with money 
of any stranger which is not of thy seed. 

He that is born in thy house and he that is bought 
with thy money, must needs be circumcised ; and my 
covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting 
covenant. 

And the uncircumcised man child whose flesh of 
his foreskin is not circumcised, that soul shall be cut 
off from his people ; he hath broken my covenant." 1 

The children of Israel are told : 

" And in the eighth day the flesh of his (man 
child's) foreskin shall be circumcised." 2 

Owing to the fact that circumcision was 
the sign of God's adoption by Abraham, it 

^en, 17:19-14. 2 Lev. 12: 3. 



Of the First Born 133 

is known as DrrUM Wni " The Abrahamitic 
covenant." 

According- to Jewish tradition, it is the 
duty of even- father to circumcise his son. 
Should the father neglect his responsibility, 
the religious authorities look to its execu- 
tion. And in the event that a male's cir- 
cumcision is overlooked by those in author- 
ity in the congregation, said male, when 
grown, is obligated to provide for his own 
circumcision. One willing to remain un- 
circumcised is punished with the penalty of 
TTO " cutting off " from the congregation 
of God. 

Originally every father was expected to 
circumcise his child, but in the course of 
time the office of professional operator, 
" Mohel," was created. At the present 
time the service is not infrequently dele- 
gated to a graduate physician, as circum- 
cision is justly regarded a surgical opera- 
tion. 

The circumcision must take place on the 
eighth day after the child's birth, and not 



134 Circumcision and Redemption 

earlier than sunrise. If a circumcision has 
for some cause or other been performed at 
night, blood, known as blood of the cove- 
nant, must be drawn, by incision, from the 
male organ of the child during the follow- 
ing day. In the case of weak children the 
circumcision is postponed until they are 
strong enough to undergo the operation. 
A sick child, for example, one suffering 
from fever, is not circumcised until seven 
days after its recovery. A child suffering 
from some local ailment, like sore eyes, is 
circumcised immediately after its recovery. 
The child born without foreskin has simply 
the drop of blood, constituting the blood of 
the covenant, taken from him by incision. 
The utmost precaution is always exercised 
not to endanger a child's life by circum- 
cision. If the blood does not circulate 
properly in a child, or if two children of the 
same family have died as a result of their 
circumcision, the circumcision must be 
postponed. If a child dies before the eighth 
day its circumcision should, according to 
the Shulchan Aruch, take place at the 



Of the First Born 135 

cemetery before burial, but without the 
recitation of the usual formula, although 
the dead child is given a name. This cus- 
tom of circumcising dead children is not 
general. 

Circumcision may take place even on 
Sabbaths. It may be performed in the 
home, or even in the synagogue, though 
the synagogue is not often selected. The 
operation may be performed by means of 
any sharp instrument, either a lancet or 
scissors. A lancet is most generally em- 
ployed. 

The manner of the operation is as fol- 
lows : The foreskin is stretched forward 
and held tight by some support, so that it 
does not slip back on the organ. . It is then 
cut off close to the support and thrown into 
sand, because the promise was given to 
Abraham that his posterity would be as nu- 
merous as the grains of sand upon the sea- 
shore. Some wine is then sprinkled on the 
wound and on the face of the child in order 
to revive the child from weakness, conse- 
quent upon the loss of blood. The remain- 



136 Circumcision and Redemption 

ing skin of the organ is then cut, so that 
the head of the organ remains altogether 
exposed, an act termed " Periah," uncov- 
ering, without which the circumcision is 
null and void. Thereupon the operator 
takes some wine into his mouth and sucks 
the blood out of the wound, an act known 
as " Mezizah," and performed to prevent in- 
flammation. Some healing powder is 
put on the wound, whereupon the organ is 
bandaged. The sucking of the blood has 
been abandoned in many communities, 
especially in such where practicing physi- 
cians perform the operation, and in its place 
antiseptics are used, as children have been 
known to become inoculated with the 
germs of disease by the traditional pro- 
cedure. 

The night preceding the circumcision is 
often spent in the recitation of Psalms and 
Talmudical passages at the home of the 
child by those, who expect to attend the ac- 
ceptance of the boy into the Abrahamitic 
covenant. 



Of the First Born 137 

The most important person next to the 
operator at the circumcision is the " San- 
dek," God-father, or " Ba'al Berith," who 
holds the child while the circumcision is 
performed. The service accompanying the 
operation is the following : 

As the child is brought into the room 
where the circumcision takes place, the 
company to witness the operation ex- 
claims : " Blessed be he who< comes in the 
name of God." 

The father of the child then says : 

" Behold I am prepared to perform the commanda- 
tory precept which the Creator, blessed be He, en- 
joined upon us, namely to circumcise my son, as 
it is written in the law. ' And at the age of 8 days 
every male throughout your generations should be 
circumcised.' " 

The operator places the child, then, upon 
a chair symbolical of the throne of Elijah, 
Elijah being the angel of the covenant, ac- 
cording to the prophet Malachi, and says, 
" Behold I will send my messenger, and he 
shall prepare the way before me." 3 

3 Mai. 3: 23. 



138 Circumcision and Redemption 

The operator thereupon recites: 

" This is the throne of Elijah — may he be remem- 
bered for good. For Thy salvation, O Lord, I 
have waited. For Thy salvation, O Lord, I have 
hoped. Thy commandments I have obeyed. For 
Thy salvation, O Lord, I have hoped. I rejoice 
because of Thy word, as one who finds abundant 
booty. Unbounded peace comes to those, who cher- 
ish Thy law, and obstacles never come into their 
path. Happy he, whom Thou choosest and whom 
Thou causest to approach, that he may dwell in 
Thy courts." 

After this introduction the company re- 
sponds : 

" Let us be satisfied with the goodness of Thy 
house, Thy holy temple." 

The God-father, who is seated upon a 

chair, now receives the child and holds it on 

his knees, while the operator says : 

" Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, who has sanctified us with his com- 
mandments and enjoined upon us the circumcision." 

Immediately after the circumcision the 

father intones : 

" Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, who has sanctified us by His com- 
mandments, and commanded us to cause our sons 
to enter the covenant of our Father Abraham." 



Of the First Born 139 

To this benediction the company re- 
sponds : 

" As he (the boy) has entered the covenant, so 
may he be permitted to enter the study of the law, 
the marriage state and the practice of good deeds." 

Then the operator picks up a goblet of 
wine and says : 

"Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine. 

Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, King of the 
Universe, who from the womb sanctified the be- 
loved (Isaac), who set a statute in his flesh and who 
sealed his off-spring with the sign of the holy cove- 
nant, therefore, with this reward. Oh, our living 
God, our Portion, our Rock, command the deliv- 
erance of the dearly beloved of our flesh from de- 
struction, for the sake of the covenant, Thou hast 
put on our flesh. Blessed be, Thou, O Lord, 
Former of the covenant. 

Our God, and God of our Fathers, preserve this 
child for his father and mother, and may he be called 
in Israel — (Here follows the Hebrew name of the 
child by which he is to be known.) Let the father 
rejoice over him that came from his loins, and let 
his mother be glad because of the fruit of her womb, 
as it is written in scriptures: ' let thy father and thy 
mother rejoice and let her that gave thee birth, be 
glad.' And as it is said: 'And I passed by thee, 
and saw thee weltering in thy blood, and said unto 
thee : In thy blood live.' And it is furthermore 
said : ' He hath remembered His covenant forever, 
the word which he commanded for a thousand gener- 



140 Circumcision and Redemption 

ations; the covenant which He made with Abraham, 
and His oath unto Isaac, and which He confirmed 
unto Jacob for a statute, to Israel for an everlasting 
covenant.' And it is said : ' And Abraham circum- 
cised his son, Isaac, when he was eight days old, 
as God had commanded him.' 

Oh, give thanks unto the Lord, for He is good. 
His loving kindness endures forever. May this child 
(here the name is again mentioned), become great; 
and as he has entered the covenant, so may he be per- 
mitted to enter the study of the law, the bond of 
marriage, and the practice of good deeds." 

The God-father now drinks of the wine; 
a few drops are given to the infant, and the 
goblet with the remainder is sent to the 
mother so that she may partake of its con- 
tents. The circumcision always concludes 
with a feast, followed by grace appropriate 
to the occasion, and recited by the oper- 
ator. 4 

While speaking of the circumcision of 
Jewish children, the adoption of non-Jews 
as proselytes may be taken into considera- 
tion. The Shulchan Aruch holds that non- 
Jewish males, seeking religious fellowship 

4 For rules governing the circumcision, vide Shul- 
chan Aruch, Yoreh Deah, 260, etc. 



Of the First Born 141 

with Israel and the privileges resulting 
therefrom, must be subjected to circum- 
cision. If the non-Jew has already been cir- 
cumcised for hygienic reasons, the drop of 
blood, known as the blood of the covenant, 
referred to several times before, must be 
drawn from his genital organ by means of 
incision. If, for some reason or other, like 
weakness or disease, the proselyte cannot 
be circumcised without dangerous conse- 
quences, he may be accepted by simply con- 
forming to the two other conditions of his 
admission, bathing and immersion. Atten- 
tion should be called to the fact that at a 
meeting of American Reform Rabbis held 
in New York in 1892, the circumcision of 
proselytes was abolished as a condition of 
their admission into the Jewish faith. 5 

In this connection it may not be out of 
place to say a word on the attitude of Jews 
toward proselytes. It should be stated at 
the outset that Judaism is not a proselyting 

5 Vide " Year Book Central Conference of Amer- 
ican Rabbis," 1892-1893. 



142 Circumcision and Redemption 

faith. Non-Jews are accepted only if they 
apply for Jewish fellowship of their own 
free will and accord. Every conversion pre- 
supposes not only instruction in the princi- 
ples and ceremonial institutions of Judaism, 
but also the dissuasion of the prospective 
convert from his step. He must be made 
acquainted with the sad lot of persecution 
which Israel has endured, and only after the 
promise of willingness to share that lot with 
his newly adopted brethren can the convert 
hope to be accepted. In addition the pledge 
is exacted, that all children born to the con- 
vert after entrance into the marriage state 
with a born Jew or Jewess, will be permit- 
ted to conform to the demands of the Abra- 
hamitic covenant. 6 

Since girls have no physical operation 
performed, the question naturally arises, 
when do they receive their names? It is 
customary for the father and mother of the 
female child to go to the synagogue about 

6 Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh Deah, 268-270. 



Of the First Born 143 

six weeks after the girl's birth. This visit 
is usually made on the Sabbath. The father 
is called to the bema to be one of the eight 
persons to recite the usual benedictions 
over a sub-section of the weekly portion 
read from the scrolls. In the course of spe- 
cial blessings, which the father asks the pre- 
centor to make, he delegates the precentor 
to dedicate one to his new-born daughter 
and to give to her the name by which she is 
to be known ever after, and to dedicate 
another blessing to his wife. 

The attitude of the synagogue toward fe- 
male converts to Judaism is one of dissua- 
sion, like its attitude toward males. 

Another ceremony, to which male in- 
fants are subjected, is that known as the 
" Redemption," ]2n pna if the male child 
happens to be the first born among the 
children of the family. The first born is 
always the first born of the mother. If a 
man marries a widow with children, and a 
boy is the first fruit of the marriage, no Re- 
demption is necessary. If the father is ab- 



144 Circumcision and Redemption 

sent or sick at the time of a son's Redemp- 
tion, the Redemption must be observed by 
the mother. This institution takes place on 
the thirty-first day after the child's birth. 
If the day for the Redemption happens to 
be a Sabbath or holiday, the ceremony is 
deferred until the next following day, be- 
cause, being a transaction by means of 
coin, it would be a desecration of the Sab- 
bath. The institution has its origin in the 
fact that in the tenth plague which befell 
Egypt, and in which the first born of every 
Egyptian home was killed, the first born of 
Israel was spared. The law is therefore laid 
down : 

" Every firstling of an ass, thou shalt redeem with 
a lamb, and if thou wilt not redeem it, then thou 
shalt break his neck; and all the first born of man 
among thy children shalt thou redeem. " 7 

In Numbers both the age and the cost 
of redemption are stipulated in the words : 

"And those that are to be redeemed from a month 
old shalt thou redeem, according to thine estimation, 
for the money of five sheckels, after the sheckel of 
the sanctuary, which is twenty gerah." 8 

7 Ex. 13: 13. 8 Numb. 18: 16. 



Of the First Born 145 

For the redemption of the child the 
parent must go to one who is descended 
from the priestly family of Aaron. The rea- 
son that one of the descendants of Aaron 
officiates at this ceremony is, because in the 
early days of Israel the house of Aaron was 
selected in place of the first born of Israel 
to minister in the sanctuary. If the father 
of the child happens to be of the family of 
Aaron, or of one of the less aristocratic 
Levitical clans, or the mother is the daugh- 
ter of an Aaronite or Levite, the child need 
not be redeemed. The amount of redemp- 
tion money to be given to the priestly de- 
scendant is always the equivalent of five 
sheckels. This is about $2.50 in our cur- 
rency. The money may be given in the 
form of a substitute if more agreeable or 
convenient. Should the father or mother 
neglect the ceremony of redemption, the 
child, when old, must subject himself to it 
of his own accord. 

The service proceeds as follows: The 
father presents his child to the priest or 
Aaronite, and says : 



146 Circumcision and Redemption 

" This my first born, is the first born of his mother ; 
and the Holy One, Blessed be He, has commanded to 
redeem him as it is said: 'And those that are to 
be redeemed of them from a month old, shalt thou 
redeem, according to thy estimation, for the money 
of five sheckels, after the sheckels of the sanctuary, 
the sheckel being twenty gerahs.' And it is further- 
more said : Sanctify unto me all the first born, what- 
soever openeth the womb among the children of 
Israel, both of man and of beast; it is mine." 

The father, then handing to the Aaronite 
the equivalent of five sheckels, is asked by 
him: 

" What do you prefer? To give me thy first born 
son, the first born of his mother, or to redeem him 
for five selahs, which thou art by law obliged to 
give ? " 

The father answers : 

" I prefer to redeem my son, and here is the value 
of his redemption, which I am by law obliged to 
give." 

After the redemption money has been ac- 
cepted and the child has been returned to 
the father, the father says : 

" Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, who has sanctified us by his command- 
ments and enjoined upon us the redemption of the 
son. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 



Of the First Born 147 

the Universe, who has kept us alive, preserved us 
and permitted us to reach this season." 

Holding the redemption money over the 
head of the child, the Aaronite declares : 

" This is instead of that. This is in exchange for 
that. This is in remission of that. May it be the 
will of God, that as this child has entered the period 
of redemption, it may be spared to enter the study 
of the law, the marriage state, and the practice of 
good deeds. Amen." 

The Aaronite then places his hand upon 

the head of the child and says : 

" May God make thee like Ephraim and Manasseh. 
May the Lord bless thee and preserve thee. May the 
Lord let his countenance shine upon thee and be gra- 
cious unto thee. May the Lord lift up his counte- 
nance toward thee and give thee peace. The Lord 
is thy keeper. The Lord is thy shade upon thy right 
hand. For length of days and years of life, and 
peace they shall add to thee. The Lord shall guard 
thee against all evil, He will guard thy life. 

■ Amen." 

After the redemption there is a feast sim- 
ilar to the one following the circumcision. 

Here end the ceremonials of infancy. 
Those still to be treated are the ceremonials 
of adolescence, manhood, and of certain 
special occasions arising in the course of 
life. 



CHAPTER X 

Bar Mjtzvah 

The thirteenth birthday of the Jewish 
boy is one of the most important events of 
his life. He is considered as having at- 
tained his religious majority. The event is 
usually celebrated by him both in the syna- 
gogue and home. Before, however, this is 
done, he is obliged to make elaborate edu- 
cational preparations. Long before the ad- 
vent of the great day, he is sent by his 
father to a teacher, who instructs him in 
the whole section, or in one of the sub-sec- 
tions of the weekly Pentateuchal portion, 
read on the Sabbath following his thir- 
teenth birthday, according to the Jewish 
calendar, in order to enable him to read the 
unpointed text from the scrolls during the 
services. In addition to the Pentateuchal 
section, he is also taught the accompany- 
ing prophetical portion. While in some 
communities boys are permitted to read the 



150 Bar Mitzvah 

several parts of the scriptures without the 
traditional melody, in the great majority of 
communities the reading with the melody 
(trope, or neginah) is not only expected, 
but actually demanded. During this period 
of instruction, the boy is furthermore 
taught how to lay the phylacteries, which 
becomes a daily duty to be performed by 
him already three months before the thir- 
teenth anniversary of his birth. When the 
day in question arrives, he is regarded a"Bar 
Mitzvah," a son of the commandment, by 
which is understood, a Jew expected to* per- 
form the precepts of the religion and pun- 
ishable for their violation. According to 
tradition, the father, who is in duty bound 
to provide for the proper training of his 
son, is responsible for the son's every failure 
to comply with the laws of God. When, 
therefore, the son becomes a " Bar Mitz- 
vah" the father thanks God for having freed 
him from further responsibility for laws 
transgressed by his son, reciting the bene- 
diction : " Praised be He (that is, God) who 



Bar Mitzvah 151 

has freed me from being responsible for this 
young man's conduct." ttwwo *n»aB> ira 

n? ^ 
When the boy comes to the synagogue 
on the Sabbath of his Bar Mitzvah, he is 
called to the bema, where he sings the sev- 
eral sub-sections for others, who recite the 
traditional benedictions, usually saying the 
benedictions himself over the last and 
eighth sub-section, called, as will be re- 
membered, " Maftir," the concluding por- 
tion. Then the boy follows with the 
prophetical portion. In some instances 
boys deliver addresses in the hearing of the 
assembled worshippers, in which are set 
forth the duties and beliefs of the Jew. 
Upon returning from the public devotion, 
the mid-day meal is made a family feast, 
and during the course of the same, the 
" Bar Mitzvah " delivers a speech, in which 
he thanks his parents and relatives for the 
love and care enjoyed at their hands. On 
this occasion the boy is as a rule the recipi- 
ent of gifts from relatives and friends. 



152 Bar Mitzvah 

The reason assigned for the age at which 
a boy becomes a " Bar Mitzvah " is a state- 
ment made in the Mishnah to this effect : 

" At five one must begin the study of the Bible, 
at ten that of the Mishnah, and at thirteen one 
must assume the commandments, etc." * 

Whether this was the real reason for the 
foundation of this institution is question- 
able. We are inclined to* believe that thir- 
teen was fixed as the age of the Jew's re- 
ligious majority because in the East boys 
attain their physical maturity at about this 
age. As a religious institution to be cele- 
brated according to the manner described, 
it is no doubt the result of Christian influ- 
ences, 2 and corresponds to the rite of Con- 
firmation in the Church. Its existence in 
the synagogue cannot be traced further 
back than the fourteenth century. 3 

Girls are not subjected to this ceremony, 

x Aboth 5: 24. 

2 Dembitz, " Services in Synagogue and Home " 
p. 263. 

3 Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 32; Loew, 
" Lebensalter " p. 210. 



Bar Mitzvah 153 

as they cannot be expected to perform re- 
ligious obligations, which have to be exe- 
cuted at a fixed time (a point dwelt upon 
in a previous chapter). 

The Bar Mitzvah ceremony, in the elabo- 
rateness of previous centuries, has fallen 
into disuse in many communities. With the 
ever-lessening attention paid by Jews to the 
study of Hebrew, a boy, who becomes a 
Bar Mitzvah, frequently does no more than 
recite the benedictions over a sub-section 
of the law read to him by the precentor of 
the synagogue. In those communities where 
the Bar Mitzvah ceremony has either dis- 
appeared altogether, or been modified as 
stated, an institution known as Confirma- 
tion, to which both boys and girls are ad- 
mitted, has taken the place of the Bar 
Mitzvah. It may be celebrated at any time. 
In America " Shebuoth," Feast of Weeks, 
is generally selected, because of the exist- 
ing tradition that on the sixth day of Sivan, 
the third month, the law was given to 
Israel at Mt. Sinai, and hence the time is 



154 Bar Mitzvah 

best suited to impress on Confirmants their 
religious responsibility. The age of Con- 
firmation is about the same as that of the 
Bar Mitzvah, although an effort is now 
being made to raise the age of Confirma- 
tion, on account of the need of a more pro- 
nounced mental maturity for the proper 
comprehension of the subjects taught 
classes prepared for this ceremony. Con- 
firmation was first introduced into the syna- 
gogue at Cassel, Westphalia, in 1810. 



CHAPTER XI 

Marriage 

The ceremony following that of Bar 
Mitzvah, or Confirmation, in the life of the 
Jew, is that of marriage. The age of mar- 
riage differs greatly. In some sections Jews 
marry earlier than in others. The practice 
is regulated for the most part by the cus- 
tom in vogue among non-Jews. Israel 
Abrahams tells, that " the early age at 
which marriages occur must have been 
partly responsible for the chastity of the 
Jews in the middle ages." x Since the Mish- 
nah fixes the eighteenth year of one's life 
as the age of marriage, 2 a man unmarried 
after this time is, in many communities, re- 
garded as not having conformed with in- 
violable tradition. The Shulchan Aruch 
states : " Every Jewish man should marry 
at eighteen, and he who marries earlier is 

1 Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 90. 
2 Aboth 5: 24. 



156 Marriage 

more meritorious. No one, however, should 
marry earlier than thirteen years of age." 3 
In the selection of a spouse Jews and 
Jewesses must be cautious not to choose 
any one with whom wedlock is forbidden, 
on account of consanguinity and affinity, 
chastity, or on religious grounds. The mar- 
riages forbidden on account of consanguin- 
ity and affinity are those stipulated in or 
based upon Leviticus 18: 11-21, and there 
regarded as incest. Marriages forbidden 
on account of chastity are, for example, 
with one's divorced wife, after she had been 
married to another; the marriage of adul- 
terers; the marriage between a divorced 
woman and a witness in her divorce case; 
and the marriage of a legitimate child of 
one family with an illegitimate child of an- 
other. Marriages forbidden on religious 
grounds are, for example, the marriage of 
Jews with non-Jews; the marriage of the 
childless widow of a man, who leaves an un- 

3 Eben Haezer 1: 3. 



Marriage 157 

married brother, with a stranger; and the 
marriage of an Aaronite with a divorced 
woman. For further particulars as to re- 
strictions placed on the Aaronite in matters 
of marriage, the 21st chapter of Leviticus 
may be referred to. 4 

A marriage can take place any day of the 
week excepting on a Sabbath, or a holiday. 
Every Jewish marriage presupposes three 
points — the consent of both parties to the 
marriage, their mental soundness, and their 
legal age. 

In some communities the professional 
match-maker, " Shadchan," plays a promi- 
nent part in the arrangement of marriages 
between young people. When he finds two 
persons, who in his opinion are fitted as 
partners for one another, he takes the initia- 
tive in bringing them together. The Shad- 
chan is undoubtedly a remnant of the Cru- 
sades, during which, owing to> the disinte- 
gration of society through massacre and 

4 Lev. 21: 6, 7, 14. 



158 Marriage 

expulsion, Jewish men and women had to 
be brought together by an agent of the 
Shadchan's kind. 5 

The marriage ceremony consists of two 
parts — the betrothal, " Arusin," and the 
nuptials, " Nissuin," which before the six- 
teenth century were performed separately, 
the betrothal often preceding the nuptials 
by from one month to a whole year. The 
ceremony is performed by a Rabbi, al- 
though during the Middle Ages either the 
groom himself, or some guest at the wed- 
ding, pronounced the customary benedic- 
tions. While the omission of the benedic- 
tions referred to would not invalidate a 
marriage, the benedictions, glorifying God, 
are, as a rule, nevertheless recited, since ac- 
cording to Jewish law marriage is a divine 
institution. A Jewish marriage is conduct- 
ed as follows: 

The bride and groom, who are expected 
to fast on the day of their marriage, as a 

5 Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 170. 



Marriage 159 

mark of their penitence for wrongs commit- 
ted in the early part of their life, proceed to 
the altar, the bride led by her father and the 
groom by his mother, and take their places 
under a nuptial canopy, " Chuppah." The 
Chuppah, which is made either of silk or 
satin, and often handsomely embroidered 
with the words }nn h)p " the voice of the 
groom," rfa h)p " the voice of the bride," 
|1W hip " the sound of joy," and nn&B> h)p 
" the sound of gladness," is supported by 
four staves, one on each corner, and held 
by four guests. Instead of a handsomely 
embroidered covering in silk or satin, a 
large praying scarf, " Talith," is often used. 
The person consummating the marriage 
opens with the words : 

" Blessed be he who comes in the name of the 
Lord. We bless you out of the house of the Lord. 

Come, let us worship and bow down, let us kneel 
before the Lord our Maker. 

Serve the Lord with Joy. Come before Him, with 
shouting." 

Thereupon Psalm 100 is intoned, fol- 
lowed by these words : 



160 Marriage 

" May He, who is Mighty, Blessed and Great, 
above all things bless the bridegroom and the bride." 

After this introduction the officiating 
clergyman is wont to give a charge, upon 
the conclusion of which, these blessings of 
betrothal are intoned. Lifting up one of 
the two goblets of wine, the clergyman 
says: 

" Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, who creates the fruit of the vine. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, Who has sanctified us by His com- 
mandments and commanded us concerning forbid- 
den marriages; who denied those, that are be- 
trothed, but sanctioned for us such as are wedded 
to us, by means of the canopy and the sacred 
covenant of wedlock. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, 
who sanctifies his people, Israel, by means of the 
canopy and the sacred covenant of wedlock." 

The bride and groom having drunk from 

the goblets of wine just blessed, the 

groom proceeds to place a ring upon the 

forefinger of the bride's right hand, saying: 

" Behold, thou art consecrated unto me by means 
of this ring, according to the laws of Moses and 
Israel." 

Here follows the reading of the marriage 
contract, " Kethubah," given to the bride. 



Marriage 161 

The seven nuptial blessings are then re- 
cited by the clergyman, who lifts up a sec- 
ond goblet of wine, saying : 

" Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, who creates the fruit of the vine. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, who creates all things for His Glory. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, Creator of man. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, who made man in His image, accord- 
ing to His likeness, and prepared for him out of His 
own being, an everlasting fabric. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, Creator of Man. 
May she who was barren, i. e., Zion, be exceedingly 
glad and exult when her children are gathered within 
her in joy. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who makes Zion glad 
because of her children. 

Cause the loved companions to rejoice, even as 
thou didst in days of old gladden thy creatures in 
the garden of Eden. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, 
who causes the bridegroom and the bride to rejoice. 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of 
the Universe, who created joy and gladness, bride- 
groom and bride, mirth and exultation, pleasure and 
delight, love and brotherhood, peace and fellow- 
ship. 

May there be heard soon in the cities of Judah and 
the streets of Jerusalem the voice of joy and glad- 
ness, the voice of the bridegroom and the voice of 
the bride, the jubilant voice of the bridegrooms from 
their canopies, and of youths from their feasts of 
song. 

11 



1 62 Marriage 

Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who causes the bride- 
groom to rejoice with the bride." 

The young couple then drink from the 
second goblet. A glass is broken by the 
bridegroom and the three-fold priestly 
blessing is intoned, as a fitting conclusion 
of the ceremony. 

The details of the ceremony have their 
symbolical significance. The Chuppah rep- 
resents the home of the couple which is to 
be permeated by the religious spirit. The 
two goblets of wine represent the cups of 
joy and sorrow and the bridegroom's and 
bride's drinking from both is expressive of 
their willingness to share the joys and sor- 
rows of life. The ring, which no doubt 
originated in medieval times, is a substitute 
for the coin, by means of which marriages 
were originally consummated. It must be 
made of pure gold and be devoid of gems. 
Its purity is symbolic of conjugal fidelity, 
and gems are omitted, as their exact value 
cannot be estimated. The breaking of a 
glass is for good luck. It is supposed to 



Marriage 163 

forestall all misfortune due to excessive re- 
joicing. The custom is no doubt based on a 
legend, which tells, that when Rabbina's son 
was married, Rabbina noticed that the 
guests were too hilarious. In order to 
check their glee he broke before them a 
white porcelain vase worth two hundred zu- 
zim, equal to $100 in our currency. 

The Kethubah, or contract, which pro- 
tected women against penury in the days 
when women could be divorced against 
their will, a condition changed by Rabbenu 
Gershom, a teacher of the eleventh century, 
reads : 

" On (day of the week), the day 

of the month in the year A. M., 

according to the Jewish reckoning, here, in 

the city of Mr son of 

said to the virgin daughter of : 

Be thou my wife in accordance with the 
laws of Moses and Israel, and I will work 
for thee, honor, support and maintain thee, 

6 Tosephoth Berachoth, 30, b. 



164 Marriage 

in accordance with the custom of Jewish 
husbands, who work for their wives, honor, 
support and maintain them. I will further- 
more set aside two hundred denarii, to be 
thy dowry, according to the law, and be- 
sides, provide thy food, clothing, and neces- 
saries, and live with thee in conjugal rela- 
tions according to universal custom. 

Miss on her part consented to be- 
come his wife. The marriage portion which 
she brought from her father's house in sil- 
ver, gold, valuables, clothes, etc., amounts 
to Mr the bridegroom, con- 
sented to increase this amount from his 

property with the sum of making in 

all He furthermore declared : I 

take upon myself and my heirs the respon- 
sibility for the amount due according to 
this contract and of the marriage-portion, 
and of the additional sum (by which I 
promised to increase it), so that all this 
shall be paid from the best part of my prop- 
erty, real and personal, such as I now pos- 
sess, or may hereafter acquire. All my 





nais>a 3 

tryaiwi ro**D Bran u*hx rwsn tw 

}»a pa une> pja 5 ? dVw nxna 5 ? 

"IT** 

wfrira mm m iait 

Tpiai mai* njni ^nan rra»a ma iruaV ^ nn 
pmsn pNnrr pan mafro »d^ w ojnaw pr*n 
ina *a^ warn KBisnpa \\tw& pa:iaai pn pnpioi 
'yjwai kotwtd Ksb wn pmo n? spa ^a^ina 
sn« *?a mix: .ypnb bmm rypTsw ^moai 
mm m wfriro ma n^asi 

s aa rrt> rtwam miu pn in»6 rrb 
Nana 5 ?! »jMoa paraana pa an?a pa spaa pa 
spa trpipi ruva NDiyi Nanoraoi nri wesvn 
pi |n 'i *m ?ps 

mm* Bjns spa Dpipt raw mVn p m spoim 
ion "pi »pTS spa opip? [kind 'pan -p pJH 
nmra*injn "i 

*?y mjap in Knaotni ft iwnj ni aroma iaa> 
prjpi pbaa Jii* tew ^aa yisnr6 wna mi 1 ton 
•jprf? ion* ivum wpi m , o» ^a n)nn *> mm 
pm pma nvina ]\rt? nfrr\ nrnm pit? mh paa: 
swru in »rovo tb» prua yna^ prcnsn pnrw 

'TO 'WJTO ^'1 ND^J P fraJNl Ml WWA }1 

aroma idb> tdyti nvinxi nfey^i pi xnvp tkxh 
■i rby bnp m xr\mm p ottu ai 
mama nop ^a nana pi }n 
wan ppma pnawn W ruaa pjrai nnsDim 
nam 'asiaa ami aroDoaa am nana 1 ? oina 

'1 p N^ jpi 

ma 1 ? pi }n 
anai na ^aa m amnra 



Dpi t» ^an no aapa*? -ia>ai ajaa ^y 1 ? aniaai 



I 



01 



Marriage Contract 



Marriage 165 

property, even the mantle on my shoulders, 
shall be mortgaged for the security of the 
claims above stated, until paid now and for- 
ever. Thus, Mr ,the bridegroom, has 

taken upon himself the fullest responsibili- 
ty for all obligations of this Kethubah, as 
customary in regard to the daughters of 
Israel, and in accordance with the strict or- 
dinances of our sages of blessed memory; 
so that this document is not to be regarded 
as an illusory obligation, or as a mere form 
of documents. 

In order to render the above declara- 
tions and assurances of the said bride- 
groom, to the said bride, perfectly valid and 
binding, we have applied the legal formality 
of symbolical delivery." 

To this document are usually attached 
the signatures of the bridegroom and two 
witnesses and sometimes also the signature 
of the officiating clergyman. 7 

The ceremony is often preceded by the 

7 Vide Mielziner, " Jewish Law of Marriage and 
Divorce " for additional details. 



1 66 Marriage 

reading of the regular afternoon service, 
" Minchah," and is itself never performed 
among more conservative Jews without the 
presence of the usual devotional quorum of 
ten men. It is conducted either at the 
home of the bride or at the synagogue. 
After the ceremony a family feast is held, 
followed by a special grace. These are the 
main characteristics of the Jewish marriage. 
In many communities there are some spe- 
cial features peculiar to them and not 
known by others. Where such is the case, 
the special features may be traced to similar 
customs in vogue among local non-Jews. 



CHAPTER XII 

Divorce and Chalitzah 

Although the Jew regards marriage a 
divine institution, and hence one to be 
maintained throughout the husband's and 
wife's life, he favors the discontinuance of 
the marriage state under certain well de- 
fined and reasonable conditions. The Jew- 
ish divorce laws are based on the following 
passages : 

"When a man hath taken a wife and married her, 
and it come to pass, that she find no favor in his 
eyes, because he hath found some uncleanliness in 
her, then let him write her a bill of divorcement 
and give it in her hand, and send her out of his 
house. And when she is departed out of his house 
she may go and be another man's wife." 1 

According to the Biblical passages just 
cited, the right of divorcing was granted to 
the husband with no provision of the same 
right to the wife. In order to prevent the 
abuse of this privilege the " Kethubah," 

1 Deut. 24: 1-2. 



168 Divorce and Chalitzah 

marriage contract, was introduced, which 
stipulated a dowry for the wife, in case of 
her divorce; while also restrictions in the 
right of divorce were imposed on the hus- 
band since the days of Rabbenu Gershom, a 
teacher of the eleventh century. At the 
present time no divorce can take place ac- 
cording to Jewish law, except upon mutual 
agreement of husband and wife. Nor is 
the right to sue for divorce any longer con- 
fined to the husband. The wife enjoys the 
same privilege to free herself from an un- 
happy union. A wife, as well as a husband, 
may sue for divorce on the ground of adul- 
tery, immorality or loathsome disease. In 
addition to these reasons a wife may sue for 
divorce on account of non-support or deser- 
tion. It must, however, be remembered, 
that while divorce is permitted, Jews, as a 
rule, seek to avoid a legal separation be- 
tween husband and wife. The shame at- 
taching to divorce may be recognized in the 
well-known Rabbinical sentiments, " He 
who divorces his wife is hated before the 



up 

nH»*i»ata*hpnftnn**#t"«a* rsta pp utfv ppanW rt^-aa 

I L L 

-inrw tfartn «jip ->NP^atf a nhpjip-! ym p>vWaa avn-rwyn 
torn tfra ^vst rrijna »WJ nW p •»« w HP 1 * «tf a ajn apogees* ; 

*nwrc* r?T5* >a*a ww n»3pjn yvwgi jrpavi 
toogrtfi^ "«mW jam tfwa wtwNa dipnoi mtfp^uWaa »*s jnpiya 

L L 

f— r^-ittg ytai fcirt ttp-rp TP ^jmrtf iwtn flir>yp *payi *tp> n»a w 
Saa tfa&Tjrca -p» ^vwa nttowatonWta*! pp pw swwi wpawi 
aiH w Jnmoj\K*-w aajPi Tp tfpv tp p*-ra tfnp* Ha wai p»ayn >n -bj 
p ITP9 trn T*piav snt^i farm ^ayo wp w >w *"t pn" 



-^y^ 1 v tt?»i \ v»o j i * 






Bill of Divorce 



Divorce and Chalitzah 169 

Lord;" "God's altar sheds tears for him 
who divorces the wife of his youth." 

The divorce also is always conducted in 
the presence of the religious quorum of ten 
men, although originally it was conducted 
in the presence of two witnesses. It con- 
sists of the delivery of the bill of divorce, 
" Get," by the husband to the wife. The 
bill, written in a mixture of Hebrew and 
Aramaic, reads as follows : 

" On the day of the week, the 

day of the month in the year .... 

of the creation of the world, according to 

the number we reckon here, the city, 

which is situated on the river. . . . and con- 
tains wells of water, I son of who 

stand this day in. . . .the city situated on 

the river and containing wells of 

water, do hereby consent, with my own will, 
without force, free and unrestrained, to 
grant a bill of divorce to thee, my wife .... 
daughter of . . . .who hast been my wife 
from time past, and with this I free, release 
and divorce thee that thou mayest have 



170 Divorce and Chalitzah 

control and power over thyself from now 
and hereafter, to be married to any man 
whom thou mayest choose and no man 
shall hinder thee from this day forevermore, 
and thus thou art free for every man. And 
this shall be unto thee from me a bill of 
divorce, a letter of freedom, and a docu- 
ment of dismissal, according to the laws of 
Moses and Israel." 

The document is always signed by two 
witnesses. 2 

The laws, governing the writing of the 
bill of divorce, as found in the Shulchan 
Aruch, 3 are of interest. We shall cite only a 
few of the more important. The bill of di- 
vorce must be written in twelve lines, with 
durable ink, on parchment, prepared like 
that of the scrolls of the law. It must not 
be mutilated. It must be delivered to the 
wife in person, either by the husband, or by 
an agent appointed for this purpose. It 

2 Mielziner, "Jewish Law of Marriage and Di- 
vorce," and Amram " Jewish Divorce Law." 
3 Eben Haezer, 120-153. 



Divorce and Chalitzah 171 

must not be written on Friday. It must be 
free from mistakes or repetitions. Before 
it is written the writer must draw thirteen 
lines across the parchment, twelve for the 
bill itself, and a thirteenth line divided into 
two halves for the signatures of the two 
witnesses. Every letter must stand by 
itself, that is, not be connected with others. 
Nor must the letters of one line run into 
another line, either above or below. The 
witnesses and writer, husband and wife, 
must not be in any way related. The bill of 
divorce must be handed to the wife while it 
is day, and not at night. 

An institution, reminding us of divorce 
proceedings, which is in vogue in many 
communities, is " Chalitzah," the act of 
loosening. By means of it the childless 
widow of a man is emancipated from the 
duty of marrying the dead man's eldest sin- 
gle brother. A marriage between a child- 
less widow and her husband's single brother 
is called " Yibbum," from the Hebrew 
' Yabam," brother-in-law. Its English 



172 Divorce and Chalitzah 

equivalent is " Levirate." This peculiar 
marriage, called " Levirate marriage," to- 
gether with the form of emancipation from 
it, is based on the following Biblical law : 

" If brethren dwell together and one of them die 
and have no child, the wife of the dead shall not 
marry without unto a stranger; her husband's 
brother shall go in unto her, and take her to him 
to wife, and perform the duty of a husband's brother 
unto her. 

And it shall be that the first born which she bear- 
eth shall succeed in the name of his brother, which 
is dead, that his name be not put out of Israel. 

And if the man like not to take his brother's wife, 
then let his brother's wife go up to the gate unto the 
elders and say : My husband's brother refuseth to 
raise up unto his brother a name in Israel ; he will 
not perform the duty of my husband's brother. 

Then the elders of his city shall call him and 
speak unto him, and if he stand to it and say : ' I 
like not to take her ' ; 

Then shall his brother's wife come unto him, in 
the presence of the elders and loose his shoe from 
off his foot and spit in his face, and shall answer 
and say : ' So shall it be done unto that man that 
will not build up his brother's house. 

And his name shall be called in Israel, the house 
of him that hath his shoe loosed." 4 

The object of the "levirate" marriage, 
was not only, as shown in the Biblical text 

4 Deut. 25: 5-10. 



Divorce and Chalitzah 173 

quoted, to preserve the name of the dead 
husband, but also to keep the tribal portion 
of the dead husband in his tribe, as the 
brother became, according to the old Is- 
raelitish Agrarian law the heir of the dead 
man's property by marrying his wife. The 
ceremony, attending the separation of all 
ties, between the widow and brother-in-law, 
consists of the loosening of the brother-in- 
law's shoe by the widow, whereupon she 
spits out before him saying: " So shall it be 
done unto the man, that will not build up 
his brother's house." Three judges, for the 
most part the Rabbi, and chief officers of 
the congregation, must attend the " Chal- 
itzah." These must be related neither to 
one another nor to any of the parties seek- 
ing the emancipation. During the cere- 
mony the religious quorum of ten men is 
required. The " Chalitzah " dare not take 
place before ninety-two days after the death 
of the husband. The widow is expected to 
fast on the day of her emancipation. The 
shoe to be loosened is that on the right foot 



174 Divorce and Chalitzah 

of the brother-in-law. During the entire 
ceremony, the judges are expected to sit, 
and the parties to the separation are obliged 
to stand. When the shoe is loosened the 
brother-in-law must stand firm upon the 
right foot and in no way assist the widow 
while she loosens the shoe with her right 
hand. She is not permitted to use the left 
hand. When the shoe is off, she throws it 
from her as far as possible. The widow 
then expectorates before the brother-in-law 
and all persons present exclaim three times : 
" The bare-footed." The brother-in-law re- 
turns the shoe to the Judges, from whom 
he originally received it, and they say to 
him : " May God be gracious unto thee, 
that the daughters in Israel will never have 
to marry the brother of a dead husband, or 
receive ' Chalitzah ' from him." At the 
" Chalitzah " a document is handed by the 
brother-in-law to the widow as a sign of 
cessation of all mutual obligations. 6 

5 Shulchan Aruch, Eben Haezer, 169. 



Divorce and Chalitzah 175 

In order to prevent brothers-in-law from 
abusing the " Chalitzah " by exacting large 
indemnity from the widows who often de- 
sire to be emancipated, they are obliged, 
to sign a document " Shtar Chalitzah," on 
the day of a young couple's marriage, stip- 
ulating, that they will give " Chalitzah " 
without the claim of a remuneration. In 
many communities this ceremony has disap- 
peared entirely. The conference of Amer- 
ican Rabbis held in Philadelphia in 1869, 
and the one held at Augsburg in 1871, 
ruled the Chalitzah as unnecessary for Jews 
of the present time. 6 

8 Mielziner, " Jewish Law of Marriage and Di- 
vorce." 



CHAPTER XIII 
Mourning Customs 

The last ceremonial in the life of a man 
is the death bed scene and the mourning 
which follows in his honor. It is these 
which we will consider now. 

When the persons surrounding a patient 
notice that there is no hope for recovery 
and that death is a matter of only a very 
short time, they prevail upon the patient to 
make a confession of his guilt. For this 
purpose the Rabbi is not called in. Any 
person may receive the confession, as the 
confession is not analogous to the last sa- 
crament of the Church. The last words of 
the dying Jew are always : " Hear, O Is- 
rael, the Lord is our God, the Lord is one." 
If the patient is too weak to pronounce 
these words, those in attendance do so for 
him. In the case of a woman's death, those 
called in to be with the dying, are usually 

women. As the patient closes his eyes all 
12 



178 Mourning Customs 

present say : nos p -p-Q " Praised be Thou, 
O Judge of Truth ! " 

Among most Jews, when death takes 
from them some near relative, a garment 
is rent by each one as a sign of grief. This 
rending is termed " Keriah." The moment 
a person dies, a light is kindled, which is 
kept burning for thirty days, and is rekind- 
led at every anniversary of the person's 
death — light, as has been said before, 
being that, with which the Bible compares 
the soul of man. When the light is re- 
kindled on the occasion of van anniversary, 
it is kept burning for twenty-four hours, 
from sun-down to sun-down. From the mo- 
ment that the earth covers the coffin con- 
taining the remains of the departed, the 
mourning of the family begins. It is then 
that its members commence to recite the 
" Kaddish," mourner's benediction, at 
every service during their period of mourn- 
ing. There are several forms of the " Kad- 
dish," the language of which is Aramaic. 
The most common form is : 



Mourning Customs 179 

" The great name of God be exalted, and sanctified 
in the world, which He created, according to His 
will. 

May His Kingdom be established in your life, and 
in your days, in the life of the whole house of Israel, 
now and forever. Amen. 

His great name be glorified forever and aye. 

Render praise and benediction; glory and exalta- 
tion. Speak of eminence, and excellency; sing songs 
and hymns to His hallowed name. Give praise to 
Him who is exalted high above all benedictions 
and hymns which are uttered in the world. Amen. 

May the Lord of Heaven and earth grant eternal 
peace and a full participation of the bliss of eternal 
life, and mercy to Israel, to all the righteous and 
to all who departed this life in the fear of the Lord. 

Amen. 

May heaven's fullness of peace and life be 
granted unto us and all Israel. Amen. 

May He, who makes peace in His heavens high, 
also bestow peace upon us and all Israel. Amen." * 

For seven days, known as " Shibah," in- 
cluding the Sabbath, on which there is no 
mourning, and modified or set aside by hol- 
idays, the mourners, namely the members 
of the immediate family of the departed, sit 
either upon the floor or on low stools, as 
a sign of their abject condition and pro- 

1 This English rendering is taken from Dr. 
Corse's Minhag America. 



180 Mourning Customs 

found grief. During this period all busi- 
ness is discontinued. On every morning 
and evening of the " Shibah," services are 
conducted in the house of mourning. 
Friends usually send mourners their food. 
In some communities the period of this 
mourning, perhaps appropriately termed 
" first mourning," is shortened to three 
days, and in others to one day, owing to 
the inability of many people to discontinue 
business for seven days, without incurring 
great losses. On the Sabbath eve, after the 
burial of a relative, the mourners, who re- 
main in waiting in the ante-chamber of the 
synagogue during the early part of the ser- 
vice, are escorted into the synagogue prop- 
er by the precentor, just before he wel- 
comes the Sabbath. To do this the pre- 
centor leaves the bema, and approaches the 
door with words of consolation. The " Shi- 
bah " is followed by a second mourning, 
" Shloshim," thirty days, of which the " Shi- 
bah " forms a part. For eleven months, 
from the time of burial, mourners attend the 



Mourning Customs 181 

morning and evening services in the syn- 
agogue, in order to recite the " Kaddish " 
except during the first week, when services 
are held in the house of mourning. The 
time was no doubt set as eleven months in 
order to separate the year of mourning 
from the immediately following year. Ac- 
cording to the " Shulchan Aruch " the 
length of time, during which the " Kad- 
dish " is recited, varies according to the re- 
lationship of the surviving to the departed. 
Modern usage, however, provides for its 
recitation for eleven months for every be- 
reavement in one's immediate family. 

Another occasion of hallowing the mem- 
ory of the dead, as well as praising God for 
one's bereavement, is the Memorial service 
conducted periodically during the year in 
the public service of the synagogue. 

The customs of burial and mourning are 
not the same in all countries. Attention 
should be called to the fact that the Jewish 
dead are seldom buried in anything but the 
simplest coffin, and in a plain white linen 



182 Mourning Customs 

shroud. This uniformity of attire is based 
on the desire to be in harmony with the 
Biblical passage : " Naked came I out of my 
mother's womb, and naked shall I return 
thither," 2 not to mention the desire to em- 
phasize in death the equality of all men. 

2 Job i: 21. 



CHAPTER XIV 

Ritualistic Slaughtering 

Before closing the treatment of Jewish 
ceremonial institutions, a word should be 
said about the ritualistic slaughtering of 
animals fit for food among Jews. A few 
statements will suffice to convey a fairly 
definite idea concerning it. The method of 
killing animals for food among Jews con- 
sists of severing the trachea and oesopha- 
gus of the animal by means of a knife, en- 
tirely devoid of notches, so that the blood 
may flow easily out of the body through 
the slit made. Slaughtering is not directly 
commanded in the Pentateuch. The verse 
on which slaughtering is based is : 

" Only be sure that thou eat not the blood for 
the blood is the life. And thou mayest not eat the 
blood with the life." 1 

The knives, " Chalafim," used differ in 
size, according to the size of animals to be 

1 Deut. 12: 23. 



184 Ritualistic Slaughtering 

slaughtered. For fowl there is a small 
knife, for small cattle a larger one, and for 
big cattle one of extraordinary size. The 
act of slaughtering is known as " Shechi- 
tah," and the person performing the act 
is titled " Shochet," a slaughterer. The 
" Shochet " must be a person qualified by 
knowledge. His examination before com- 
petent Judges, if passed successfully is 
called " Kabalah." The " Shochet " passes 
upon the fitness of the animal slaughtered 
for food, after a careful examination of its 
various vital organs. If he finds the animal 
sound he seals the parts with the mark "Ko- 
sher " meaning, " fit for food " in contra- 
distinction to " Terefah " meaning " unfit," 
but originally signifying something torn by 
a wild animal. In this connection the fol- 
lowing passage is of interest. " And ye 
shall be holy men unto me; neither shall ye 
eat any flesh that is torn of beasts in the 
field; ye shall cast it to the dogs." 2 All 

2 Ex. 22: 31. 




1 Knife for Slaughtering of Fowl 

2 Knife for Slaughtering of Small Cattle 

3 Knife for Slaughtering of Large Cattle 

4 Circumcision Knife 



Ritualistic Slaughtering 185 

animals are " Terefah " which are found un- 
sound, have died/ or are killed by other 
means than that of slaughtering. It is 
hardly necessary to state, which animals are 
permitted for food among Jews. Leviticus 
11 and Deuteronomy 14 are explicit on this 
subject. Let this general principle suffice 
as a statement of the guiding rule observed. 
Of animals, living on the dry ground, only 
such are eaten, which chew their cud and 
divide their hoofs, while of animals, living 
in the water, only such are eaten which 
have scales and fins. Attention should, 
however, be called to this point, that certain 
parts of animals, permitted for food are 
forbidden. They are blood, 4 fat, 5 and the 
hind quarter on account of containing the 
sciatic nerve. The hind quarter is avoided 
as food on account of the narrative in Gene- 
sis, which concluding the story of Jacob's 
wrestling with the angel of the Lord, tells : 

" Therefore the children of Israel, eat not of the 
sinew which shrank, which is upon the hollow of 

3 Deut. 14: 21. 4 Deut. 12: 23. 5 Lev. 7: 23. 



186 Ritualistic Slaughtering 

the thigh, unto this day, because he touched the hol- 
low of Jacob's thigh in the sinew that shrank." 6 

Another fact to be mentioned here is, 
that nothing made of milk in any form, like 
butter or cheese, is used by Jews together 
with meat or fat of any kind, fish alone be- 
ing excluded. This custom is based on the 
Rabbinical rendering of the Biblical pass- 
age " Thou shalt not seethe the kid in its 
mother's milk." 7 

The rules of the killing of animals among 
Jews and those governing the diet of Jews 
were no doubt prompted to a great extent 
by hygienic considerations. 

These are the main ceremonial institu- 
tions of the Jews. There are a great many 
more of minor importance. To treat them 
all would be an almost interminable work. 
What has been described in the course of 
these chapters suffices to give a fair idea of 
those institutions practiced by most Jews 
in their synagogues and homes, and of 

6 Gen. 32: 32. 7 Ex. 23: 19. 



Ritualistic Slaughtering 187 

those, to which Jews are expected to con- 
form in the course of their earthly career, 
if religious ceremonialism forms a factor in 
their life. 

FINIS. 



APPENDIX. 
CATALOGUE 

OF 

COLLECTION OFJEWISH CEREMONIAL OBJECTS 

At the Johns Hopkins University 

Baltimore, Md. 

THE GIFT 

OF 

MR. HENRY SONNEBORN 

i. Curtain for ark in Synagogue containing 
scrolls of the law. (cf. p. 28.) 

2. Torah-Manuscript scrolls of the law on vel- 

lum, (cf. p. 29.) 

3. Band for scrolls of the law. (cf. p. 31.) 

4. Covering for scrolls of the law. (cf. p. 32.) 

5. Silver shield for scrolls of the law. (cf. p. 

32.) 

6. Silver pointer for scrolls of the law. (cf. 

P. 32.) 
7-8. Silver ornaments for scrolls of the law. (cf. 
P- 32.) 
9. Covering for scrolls, (cf. p. 32.) 
10. Scrolls containing the five Megilloth ; Song 
of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes 
and Esther. 
n. Satin bag for carrying "Talith" (praying 
scarf), (cf. p. 63.) 



190 Appendix 

12. Velvet bag for carrying " Talith " (praying 

scarf), (cf. p. 63.) 

13. Silk " Talith." (cf. p. 60.) 

14. Woolen " Talith." (cf. p. 60.) 

15. Woolen "Talith." (cf. p. 60.) 

16. Silver collar for "Talith." (cf. p. 60.) 

17. Silver spice box. (cf. p. 75.) 

18. Silver spice box. (cf. p. 75.) 

19. Silver wine goblet, (cf. p. 67.) 

20. Wax taper for concluding Sabbath, (cf. p. 

72.) 

21. Wax taper for concluding Sabbath. 

22. Silver circumcision knife, (cf. p. 135.) 

23. Knife for ritualistic slaughtering of fowl. 

(cf. p. 184.) 

24. Knife for ritualistic slaughtering of small 

cattle, (cf. p. i&t.) 

25. Knife for ritualistic slaughtering of large 

cattle, (cf. p. 184.) 

26. " Hagadah " : — Text of liturgy used in the 

Jewish home on the eve of Passover, (cf. 
p. 121.) 

27. Covering for miniature scrolls of the law. 

(cf. p. 32.) 

28. Manuscript of miniature scrolls of the law 

on vellum, (cf. p. 29.) 

29. Band for miniature scrolls of the law. (cf. 

P- 31.) 

30. " Mezuzah " — amulet for door-post. (cf. p. 

108.) 

31. " Mezuzah " — amulet for door-post. (cf. p. 

108.) 
2,2. " Mezuzah " — amulet for door-post. (cf. p. 

108.) 
33. Hebrew marriage contract in German-Jewish 

script on vellum, (cf. p. 163.) 



Appendix 191 

34. Hebrew marriage contract on vellum, (cf. p. 

„ l6 3-) 

35. Shofar — Ram's Horn. (cf. p. 93.) 

36. Shofar — Ram's Horn. (cf. p. 93.) 

37. Shofar — Ram's Horn. (cf. p. 93.) 

38. Manuscript of Benedictions recited before 

reading of the book of Esther (vellum), 
(cf. p. 105.) 

39. Manuscript of the book of Esther (vellum). 

(cf. p. 104.) 

40. Manuscript of a Hebrew bill of divorce 

(vellum), (cf. p. 169.) 

41. Burial service, (cf. p. 179.) 

42. Hand worked silver shield for scrolls of the 

law. (cf. p. 32.) 

43. Printed scroll of the book of Esther, (cf. 

p. 104.) 

44. Candelabrum for " Chanukkah " — Feast of 

Rededication. (cf. p. 128.) 

45. Covering for bread broken on Sabbath eve. 

(cf. p. 120.) 

46. Brass candlesticks for tapers kindled on 

"Chanukkah" — Feast of Rededication. (cf. 
p. 128.) 

47. Brass candlesticks for Sabbath tapers, (cf. 

p. 116.) 

48. Hebrew wedding invitation. 

49. Amulet worn on the body (Small Talith). 

(cf. p. 64.) 

50. Amulet worn on the body (Small Talith). 

(cf. p. 64.) 

51. Miniature Hebrew copy of the book of Psalms. 

52. Miniature Selichoth — copy of additional pray- 

ers recited on the morning of the Jewish 
New Year and the Day of Atonement, (cf. 
p. 92.) 



192 Appendix 



53-56. Silk fringes for praying scarf, (cf. p. 61.) 
57-60. Woolen fringes for praying scarf, (cf. p. 
61.) 

61. Receptacle of " Tefilin " (phylacteries) con- 

taining manuscript copy of certain selected 
scriptural passages, (cf. p. 58.) 

62. Receptacle of " Tefilin " (phylacteries), (cf. 

P- 58.) 

63. Straps of " Tefilin " (phylacteries), (cf. p. 

58.) 

64. " Tefilin " phylacteries for the head. (cf. p. 

5i.) 

65. " Tefilin " — phylacteries for the arm. (cf. p. 

Si.) 

66. Velvet bag for phylacteries, (cf. p. 58.) 

67. Satin bag for phylacteries, (cf. p. 58.) 

68. " Mizrach," ornament suspended on the east- 

ern wall of a room showing sites of the 
Holy Land. (cf. p. 113.) 
69-70. Brass Candelabra, (cf. p. 116.) 

71. Marriage canopy, (cf. p. 159.) 

72. Seven branched Candelabrum, (cf. p. 116.) 

73. Charity Box. 

74. Sabbath Lamp. (cf. p. 117.) 

75. Passover Plate, (cf. p. 122.) 

76. Palm Branch, (cf. p. 98.) 

77. Silver Citron Box. (cf. p. 97.) 

78. Silver Habdalah Candlestick, (cf. p. 72.) 

79. Silver Passover Goblet, (cf. p. 124.) 

80. Views of the Holy Land. 

81. Pressed Blossoms from the Holy Land. 

82. Marriage Contract (Vellum), (cf. p. 163.) 

83. Wooden " Trendel " (tee-totum). (cf. p. 129.) 

84. Chanukkah Candelabrum. (cf. p. 128.) 

85. Photographs of Eminent Men in Israel, 

I7-I9th centuries. Oppenheim Pictures of 
Jewish Life. 



Appendix 193 

86. First visit of infant boy to Synagogue, (cf. 

P. 32.) 

87. Beginning of Sabbath, (cf. p. 116.) 

88. Return of Father from Synagogue to his 

home. (cf. p. 118.) 

89. Conclusion of Sabbath, (cf. p. 120.) 

90. The Rabbi's Blessing. 

91. Bar Mitzvah. (cf. p. 151.) 

92. Marriage Ceremony, (cf. p. 159.) 



13 



FEB 21 1903 




022 208 188 9 



